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Nutrition can help enhance athletic performance. An active lifestyle and exercise routine, along with eating well, is the best way to stay healthy.

Eating a good diet can help provide the energy you need to finish a race, or just enjoy a casual sport or activity. You are more likely to be tired and perform poorly during sports when you do not get enough:

• Calories
• Carbohydrates
• Fluids
• Iron, vitamins, and other minerals
• Protein

Recommendations

The ideal diet for an athlete is not very different from the diet recommended for any healthy person.

However, the amount of each food group you need will depend on:

• The type of sport
• The amount of training you do
• The amount of time you spend doing the activity or exercise

People tend to overestimate the amount of calories they burn per workout so it is important to avoid taking in more energy than you expend exercising.

To help you perform better, avoid exercising on an empty stomach. Everyone is different, so you will need to learn:

• How long before exercising is best for you to eat
• How much food is the right amount for you,

Sports nutrition is a broad interdisciplinary field that focuses on the science behind and application of proper nutrition during exercise.

• The areas of interest are: body’s use of nutrients during athletic competition; the need, if any, for nutritional supplements among athletes; and the role of proper nutrition and dietary supplements in enhancing an athlete’s performance.
• The psychological dimension of sports nutrition is concerned with eating disorders and other psychiatric conditions related to nutrition among athletes.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are nutrients that provide calories or energy to the body. The purpose of macronutrients is to promote healthy cellular growth, metabolism, and to maintain normal bodily functions. The macronutrients, as suggested by the name “macro,” are needed in the body in large amounts to provide the full and proper effect.
There are three types of macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Carbohydrates are organic materials composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms which bond together to form monosaccharides or simple sugar molecules. Carbohydrates are found to form either a simple carbohydrate, composed of one monosaccharide, or a complex (composite) carbohydrate, composed of two or more monosaccharide molecules. When broken down, both simple and complex carbohydrates form glucose, which is the body’s main source of energy . In addition, carbohydrates form an important part of waste elimination and intestinal health, Carbohydrates can be found in most fruits, vegetables and grains and provide the body with 4 calories per gram .

Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds which are involved with many of the body’s most crucial functions including:

• Providing the primary workforce in the cells
• Making hormones and enzymes
• A high involvement with tissue repair.

Proteins also provide energy when there are not enough carbohydrates available as well as sustain lean body mass. Just as carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharides, proteins are composed of chains of amino acid molecules. Also just like carbohydrates, proteins provide the body with 4 calories per gram. Proteins are most commonly found in animal products, nuts, and beans.

Fats, which are collectively referred to as triglycerides, are molecules comprised of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats provide essential elements of cell membranes and also provide the body with the ability to absorb fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. As fats are the most energy-dense macronutrient, they also provide the highest calorie count, providing the body with 9 calories per gram instead of the 4 provided by one gram of either carbohydrate or protein. The three primary types of fat include:

• Saturated fat
• Unsaturated fat
• Trans fat.

Saturated fat, such as that found in butter and cream, as well as trans fat, which is found in snack foods and fried foods, have been shown to increase the risk for cardiovascular disease. While in turn, unsaturated fats, which are found in olive oil and canola oil, has been shown to decrease the risk of developing cardiovascular disease .
In regards to athletes, the knowledge of what carbohydrates, proteins, and fats provide the body with will allow them to make the best dietary decisions regarding their performance goals.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are chemical elements comprised of thirteen organic essential vitamins and seven inorganic minerals. When consumed in the human body, micronutrients play an important role in energy production, haemoglobin synthesis, healthy growth, bone and immune health, and maintain normal metabolism. Despite the importance of maintaining the correct level of these vitamins and minerals in the body, as the name “micro” suggests, these chemical elements are only required to exist in the body in small amounts to provide ample effect.

• The thirteen essential vitamins fall into one of two categories, water-soluble and fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins, the eight vitamins which compose the vitamin B complex and vitamin C, must be consumed daily as the body is unable to store what it does not immediately use. In contrast, the fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin K, A, D and E, can be stored in the body’s adipose tissue and therefore does not have to be consumed on daily basis to maintain the correct levels in the body .

Minerals are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring an athlete’s health. The seven minerals needed to maintain accurate energy and hydration levels include:

1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Zinc
4. Magnesium
5. Sodium
6. Chloride
7. Potassium

These are important because proper hydration prior, during, and after an activity is crucial in the effect on an athlete’s performance.

According to multiple sources, the most important vitamins and minerals for athletes include:

• Calcium
• Iron
• Zinc
• Magnesium
• The vitamin B complex
• Vitamins C, D and E due to their role in the efficiency of muscle contraction; both smooth and cardiac muscle.

These vitamins and minerals can be obtained in a wide variety of food or through added supplementation. 

Nutritional Recommendations for Athletes

Nutrition is very important to every athlete, and at high levels, where talent and training are relatively equal, it can be the difference between winning and losing. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) published data they complied from multiple sources on recommended nutrition for athletes in which they state, “that physical activity, athletic performance, and recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition.” Therefore, athletes are advised to take a careful look at their daily intake of food to make sure their body is getting the nutrients it needs to repair, maintain, and build muscle. There are many recommendations for what athletes should be eating but below we looked at the ACSM and the U.S Anti-doping Agency (USADA) official recommendations.

Overall, the most important recommendation is that an athlete needs to track the amount of energy they are expending each day and make sure they are replacing this energy with a balanced diet of carbohydrates, protein, and fat. The recommended replenishment for maintaining carbohydrate levels in the body is eating 0.68 grams per pound of bodyweight within the first 30 minutes after training and again every two hours for four hours . For example, if a 180 lb. athlete completes their training for the day they need to have a meal/snack with about 122 g of carbohydrates, which could be a multi-grain bagel with peanut butter and an oatmeal bar Importantly, studies have shown it is not necessary for athletes who rest one or two days in between training bouts to follow this post-training carbohydrate recommendation as long as they are meeting their daily requirements, which are explained below.

The ACSM, and many other publications, recommend that an athlete should never train on an empty stomach. They recommend that an athlete eat between 200 and 300 g of carbohydrate three to four hours prior to exercising. The USADA says to add in small amounts of protein to help slow the breakdown of carbohydrates and aid in regulating energy levels by sending carbohydrates to muscles at a steadier rate throughout the training. However, they also say this is up to the athlete and the size of the meal they can tolerate before training. Athletes should experiment with different pre-training meals to find what they feel comfortable with and eat that meal at a time consistent to when they eat the pre-training meal before a game.

Research has shown a strong benefit to endurance performance for an athlete performing in events lasting longer than one hour if they eat about 30-60 grams of carbohydrates every hour during the event. This equates to eating a banana, a food bar, or something with equal carbohydrates every hour. The ACSM takes it even further and says it is much more beneficial to the body’s energy storage to eat small snacks or bites of carbohydrates every 15-20 minutes (about 10-20 grams each time) rather than waiting and eating 60-120 grams every two hours. The USADA says an athlete can intake 6-12 ounces of a sports drink that has 6-8% carbohydrates to water ratio. Anything greater than a 10% ratio increases the likelihood of cramps and an upset stomach. In similar regard, research is also now showing that high-quality protein consumed pre and post-training at just 0.2 grams per pound of bodyweight, which is about 4 ounces of chicken breast, is enough for a “maximal acute anabolic effect.” 

For daily intake the USADA, and practically every other organization, recommends that an athlete’s daily calorie should encompass about, 50-70% carbohydrates, 10-35% protein, and 20-30% fat . Therefore, an athlete needs to plan their day of meals according to these percentages so that they know their total caloric intake for a day encompasses enough of each type. Below is a detailed recommendation from ACSM of the breakdown of each nutrient an athlete needs for their specific body weight:

1 hour of training per day	2.5 grams per pound of body wt per hour of training
More than 4 hours of training per day	No more than 6 grams per pound of body wt

Endurance training	0.54-0.64 grams per pound of body wt
Strength training (to gain muscle mass)	0.72-0.81 grams per pound of body wt
Strength training (to maintain wt)	0.54-0.64 grams per pound of body wt [9]

20% of daily calories

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They do not recommend a specific value of grams per pound of fats because of the wide variety a person can consume. Almost all athletes do not need to make an attempt to consume more because foods an athlete is eating has fat in it, so the athlete just needs to be careful that he or she is choosing foods that have an adequate amount of fat. 

For the athlete looking for nutritional recommendations, the primary point of agreement between all researchers is that while there is some flexibility in the optimal timing of nutrients, the most important factor for maximizing the benefits of training is to consistently meet your daily carbohydrate, protein, and fat needs.

Nutrient Timing and Sport

Nutrient timing became popular about 15-20 years ago and is defined as intentionally eating specific foods before, during, and after training. Before this time athletes were not as concerned with their nutrition, let alone when they should eat certain foods. Ivy and Portman state that nutrient timing “will allow you to build more strength and lean muscle mass in less time than ever before.” They set out to debunk the fact that, if protein is good for the body then more protein must be that much better to build muscle.

Ivy and Portman explain that muscles have a very specific 24-hour growth cycle that involves the muscle producing energy, recovering, and building and athletes need to provide specific nutrients at each of these phases. They break these phases down into the energy phase (occurs during training), the anabolic phase (occurs within 45 minutes after training), and the growth phase (occurs after the 45 minutes and until the next training session). During the energy phase, as explained above, the muscles use its glycogen stores so the athlete needs to already have eaten carbohydrates and protein to aid the protein synthesis after training. During the anabolic phase, the athlete needs to follow the recommendations mentioned above and eat enough carbohydrates because the “muscle cell membranes are more permeable to glucose…this results in faster rates of glycogen storage”. Finally, during the growth phase, the athlete needs to consume carbohydrate meals with increased glycemic indexes because that helps the glycogen stores for the next workout.
This new, at the time, physiological research gave athletes something scientific they could look at and convinced a lot of them that nutrition was an important aspect of training that they have been missing. However, current research is now calling into question exactly how vital the 45-minute-anabolic window is and if it can be stretched.

Fluids and Hydration

Dehydration not only negatively alters performance but also causes serious complications. Dehydration of 1% to 2% body weight negatively influences performance and dehydration of greater than 3% further decreases physiological function and increases an athlete’s risk of developing exertional heat illness or worse. When intense exercise is combined with elevated temperatures or restricted heat loss, core temperature may rise by 2-3 °C and also result in exertional heat illness . Most studies agree that total water intake should be approximately in the 3.0 L (litre) range. Researchers found when dehydration increased, work capacity decreased by as much as 35% to 48%, and work capacity decreased even when maximal aerobic power did not change.

One study said water is the most important nutrient for athletic performance and the biggest component of the human body, accounting for approximately 73% of lean body mass. Trained athletes have higher total body water percentage values by virtue of high muscle mass and low body fat, because fat-free mass is roughly 75% water, while adipose tissue is only 10% water. Individual characteristics like body weight, genetics, metabolic proficiency, and heat acclimatization tendency will influence sweat rates.

Each pound of weight lost during exercise represents 1 pint (0.5 L) of fluid loss. Electrolytes regulate water distribution in various components of the body, with sodium being imperative to fluid regulation. The major electrolytes lost during exercise are mainly sodium chloride and some potassium. Researchers said sweat evaporation provides is the primary means of heat loss during vigorous exercise in hot weather. The goal of fluid replacement should be to prevent dehydration in excess of 2% body mass from occurring.

Before Exercise

The goal of hydrating before exercise is to start the physical activity hydrated with normal electrolyte levels. Researchers recommended 500-600 mL (17-20 fluid ounces (fl oz)) of water two to three hours prior to exercise and 200-300 mL (7-10 fl oz) 20 minutes before activity.

During Exercise

The goal of hydrating during exercise is to prevent excessive dehydration and electrolyte imbalances that could hinder athletic performance. Researchers recommended about 200-300 mL (7-10 fl oz) ever 10-20 minutes during physical activity. Athletes should make sure carbohydrate-loaded drinks have a 4-6% concentration.

After Exercise

The goal of hydrating after exercise is to fully replenish any fluid or electrolyte deficits. The athlete should ideally complete rehydration within 2 hours for hydration restoration, ingest carbohydrates (CHO) to replenish glycogen stores, and include electrolytes to prompt rehydration. Sodium in post-exercise beverages conserves fluid volume and stimulates thirst, while CHOs replenish glycogen stores.

Performance Implications

Recent research found:

• Dehydration has little to no effect on muscle strength or ballistic power but impairs the ability to perform aerobic exercise.
• 12-15 year-old basketball players with a water deficit of ~2% body mass made fewer shots and were significantly slower at sprinting and lateral movement tests.
• The players attempted fewer shots and were less able to make shots linked with movement when dehydration had increased to 3%. Stationary shooting was consistent up to 4% loss.
• Soccer players with modest dehydration during games perceived exercise as more difficult compared to when fluids were consumed with a higher internal temperature. Performance times were worse on running tests that mimicked play, as well.
• 66% of 139 college athletes surveyed recognized that body mass change is an effective method to evaluate hydration practices, but only 15% actually check their body mass.

Hyperhydration

Excessive hydration that surpasses sweating rate increases the potential of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH), a potentially lethal condition. Authors have linked EAH cases to mostly marathon participants, but the possibility remains with any athlete with low sweating rates and a copious amount of fluid

Ergogenic Aids and Performance

An ergogenic aid is defined as any means that supports in enhancing energy and utilization. Athletes use ergogenic aids to maximize performance separate themselves from the competition. Researchers classified ergogenic aids as mechanical, psychological, physiologic, and more researched pharmacological and nutritional. The general public seems mostly concerned with anabolic steroids, but a vast array of other ergogenic aids have come under scrutiny in athletics. In 2013, 0.7% of male athletes and 0.1% of female athletes reported using anabolic steroids in the last 12 months. Human growth hormone (HGH) is a commonly used aid in athletics, despite no evidence that says it improves strength, power, or performance. Amphetamines, creatine, erythropoietin (EPO), and androstenedione are several other ergogenic aids that are widely used that will be covered below. Numerous researchers reported the use of performance-enhancing substances (PES) in athletes as variable and range from 5% to 31%. Recent authors conducted an anonymous questionnaire to 2,987 German triathletes and found 13.0 % used PES to improve performance. 15.1 % of athletes noted the usage of cognitive doping to increase focus, determination, and memorization.

Anabolic Steroids

The main benefits of steroids are increased muscle size, strength, and lean body mass. Researchers randomly assigned 21 male weight-training subjects to either a testosterone or a placebo group over a 12-week period and found those in the testosterone group had significantly greater increases in muscle strength and circumference and decreases in abdominal skinfold measurements than the placebo group. Common side effects include acne, testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, cardiovascular disease, arrhythmias, stroke, blood clots, liver dysfunction, and cancer. Anabolic steroids are banned in all major sporting associations and events.

HGH

HGH is released in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates growth through the actions of insulin-like growth factor-1 which promotes lipolysis and protein anabolism to decrease fat and increase lean muscle. Authors reported that although HGH leads to an increase in muscular size, it does not lead to an increase in strength or athletic performance. Common side effects from prolonged fluid accumulation can lead to arthralgias and carpal tunnel syndrome among others.

Amphetamines/Stimulants

Commonly used stimulants include amphetamines, ephedrine, caffeine, phenylephrine, and methamphetamines. Stimulants release norepinephrine, which results in vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, mood elevation, resistance to fatigue, and even an increase in anaerobic capacity in some studies. A lower level of caffeine is the only accepted stimulant with drug testing.

Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methlbutyrate (HMB)

HMB is becoming increasingly more popular in supplementing training regimens. It is a precursor to cholesterol and is believed to diminish protein breakdown. Researchers found upper body strength and peak torque generation showed decent improvements after HMB supplementation in untrained individuals, but bench press gains and leg press one-repetition maximums in trained athletes were not affected. HMB is not tested for and completely safe.

Creatine

Creatine monohydrate is a naturally occurring compound that serves as an energy substrate for muscle contraction and is consumed in most diets. Studies show increases in strength, power, sprint times, total work to fatigue, peak force, and peak power. Of 21,000 students, the NCAA reported 14% usage among all athletes, with other studies reporting a 41% to 48% usage among college males. Caution should be observed in extreme, long-term usage, due to liver and kidney disease.

Vitamins

Athletes primarily use vitamin E, C, and A. Researchers thought these vitamins were antioxidants and therefore able to act as free-radical scavengers, but current research does not support their use for significant increases in performance.

L-carnitine

Researchers believed L-carnitine slowed muscle glycogen breakdown and led to a decrease in lactic acid production during exercise, which was proved inconclusive. Large doses of L-carnitine can cause excessive diarrhoea.

Androstenedione

As a natural precursor to testosterone, androstenedione is thought to allow for conversion to testosterone, but the majority of studies showed no significant increases in composition, strength, and testosterone concentrations. Most researchers found androstenedione lowered HDL levels, which increases the risk of cardiovascular issues, as well as the potential for the down-regulation of endogenous testosterone synthesis. Androstenedione is banned in all major sporting associations and events.

Erythropoietin (EPO)/Blood Doping

Endurance athletes benefit from improved delivery of oxygen to their tissues. One method which athletes attempt this is by living or training at high altitudes and another is through blood doping. Blood doping transfusions artificially increase the hematocrit, which increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. An alternative to doping, the drug EPO, which is produced mostly in the kidneys, increases hematocrit levels when administered in recombinant form. In response to hypoxic exposure, the body produces a greater amount of EPO.

After an autologous transfusion of 750 mL of red blood cells, the VO2 max increased by 12.8 %, and times on a treadmill test to exhaustion improved significantly. With blood doping, researchers found a 34% increase in time to exhaustion at 95% VO2 max, and a 44-second improvement in a five-mile treadmill run time performance. Other authors performed a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 4 weeks of EPO supplementation using a cycle ergometer and noted a hematocrit increase from 42.7% to 50.8% and a VO2 max increase from 63.6 to 68.1 mL kg–1 min–1.

Eating Disorders and Body Image in Athletes

Athletes may have a more positive body image than nonathletes.  A meta-analytic review found a small effect size which indicated athletes had a more positive body image than nonathletes.  The review found no difference between females or males, the type of athlete, age or body mass index .  Those who exercise regularly like athletes have been found to have a more positive body image than those who do not

Despite athletes overall having a more positive body image than nonathletes, they may be more likely to develop an eating disorder.  Common eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia athletica.  Researchers compared the prevalence of eating disorders between 1620 male and female elite athletes with 1696 male and female controls.  They found 13.5% of athletes had eating disorders compared with 4.6% of the controls.  Females athletes were also more likely to have eating disorders than males.  Those in aesthetic sports such as gymnastics, dancing, figure skating, aerobics and diving or sports with weight classes were more likely to have an eating disorder than those in endurance, technical or ball game sports .  Another medical condition female athletes who compete in sports which emphasize leanness are at risk of developing is the female athlete triad.

The treatment of athletes with eating disorders requires a multidisciplinary approach.  Coordination and support ideally should be provided from sports medicine professionals, athletic trainers, dieticians, psychiatrists, coaching staff, teammates and those close to the athlete.  Cognitive behavioural therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and atypical antipsychotics may also be used .  Eating disorders should be treated like sports injuries and require prevention, screening programs, correct treatment and timely support .

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The human body can last weeks without food, but only days without water. The body is made up of 50 to 75 per cent water. Water forms the basis of blood, digestive juices, urine and perspiration, and is contained in lean muscle, fat and bones.

As the body can’t store water, we need fresh supplies every day to make up for losses from the lungs, skin, urine and faeces (poo). The amount we need depends on our body size, metabolism, the weather, the food we eat and our activity levels.

Water as a vital nutrient: a multifunctional constituent of the human body

Water as a building material

Water, present in each cell of our body and in the various tissues and compartments, acts first as a building material. This primary function leads to nutritional recommendations, as water needs are higher during the growth period of the body.

Water as a solvent, a reaction medium, a reactant and a reaction product

Water has unique properties: it is an excellent solvent for ionic compounds and for solutes such as glucose and amino acids . It is a highly interactive molecule and acts by weakening electrostatic forces and hydrogen bonding between other polar molecules. It has a high dielectric constant and it forms oriented solvent shells around ions, thus enabling them to move freely. Water as a macronutrient is involved in all hydrolytic reactions, for instance, in the hydrolysis of other macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and so on).

Water is also produced by the oxidative metabolism of hydrogen-containing substrates in the body. Theoretically, for 1 g of glucose, palmitic acid and protein (albumin), 0.6, 1.12 and 0.37 ml water, respectively, is endogenously produced, or for 100 kcal of energy, 15, 13 and 9 ml water is produced.

Water as a carrier

Water is essential for cellular homeostasis because it transports nutrients to cells and removes wastes from cells. It is the medium in which all transport systems function, allowing exchanges between cells, interstitial fluid and capillaries . Water maintains the vascular volume and allows blood circulation, which is essential for the function of all organs and tissues of the body. Thus, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the digestive tract, the reproductive system, the kidney and liver, the brain and the peripheral nervous system, all depend on adequate hydration to function effectively . Severe dehydration therefore affects the function of many systems and is a life-threatening condition.

Water and thermoregulation

Water has a large heat capacity, which contributes to limiting changes in body temperature in a warm or cold environment. Water has a large capacity for vaporization of heat, which allows a loss of heat from the body even when ambient temperature is higher than body temperature. When sweating is elicited, evaporation of water from the skin surface is a very efficient way to lose heat.

Water as a lubricant and shock absorber

Water, in combination with viscous molecules, forms lubricating fluids for joints; for saliva, gastric and intestinal mucus secretion in the digestive tract; for mucus in airways secretion in the respiratory system and for mucus secretion in the genito-urinary tract.

By maintaining the cellular shape, water also acts as a shock absorber during walking or running. This function is important for the brain and spinal cord, and is particularly important for the fetus, who is protected by a water cushion.

 

Water in our bodies

Some facts about our internal water supply include: 

• Body water content is higher in men than in women and falls in both with age.
• Most mature adults lose about 2.5 to 3 litres of water per day. Water loss may increase in hot weather and with prolonged exercise.
• Elderly people lose about two litres per day.
• An air traveller can lose approximately 1.5 litres of water during a three-hour flight.
• Water loss needs to be replaced.

Importance of water

Water is needed for most body functions, including to: 

• Maintain the health and integrity of every cell in the body.
• Keep the bloodstream liquid enough to flow through blood vessels.
• Help eliminate the by-products of the body’s metabolism, excess electrolytes (for example, sodium and potassium), and urea, which is a waste product formed through the processing of dietary protein.
• Regulate body temperature through sweating.
• Moisten mucous membranes such as those of the lungs and mouth.
• Lubricate and cushion joints.
• Reduce the risk of cystitis by keeping the bladder clear of bacteria.
• Aid digestion and prevent constipation
• Moisturise the skin to maintain its texture and appearance.
• Carry nutrients and oxygen to cells.
• Serve as a shock absorber inside the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus in pregnancy.

Water in our food

Most foods, even those that look hard and dry, contain water. The body can get about 20 per cent of its total water requirements from solid foods alone. 

The process of digesting foods also produces a small amount of water as a by-product which can be used by the body. Water sourced this way can provide around 10 per cent of the body’s water requirements.

The remaining 70 per cent or so of water required by the body must come from fluids (liquids). 

Recommended dietary fluid intake

The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that we drink plenty of water but how much is enough?

The amount of fluid your body needs each day depends on several factors, such as your gender, age, how active you are, whether you’re pregnant or breastfeeding, and the conditions you’re living in.

How much fluid to drink each day

Infants aged 0–6 months*	0.7 litres
Infants aged 7–12 months#	0.8 litres total (with 0.6 litres as fluids)
Girls and boys aged 1–3 years	1 litre (about 4 cups)
Girls and boys aged 4–8 years	1.2 litres (about 5 cups)
Boys aged 9–13 years	1.6 litres (about 6 cups)
Boys aged 14–18 years	1.9 litres (about 7–8 cups)
Girls aged 9–13 years	1.4 litres (about 5–6 cups)
Girls aged 14–18 years	1.6 litres (about 6 cups)
Men aged 19 years and over	2.6 litres (about 10 cups)
Women aged 19 years and over	2.1 litres (about 8 cups)
Pregnant girls aged 14–18 years	1.8 litres (about 7 cups)
Pregnant women aged 19 years and over	2.3 litres (about 9 cups)
Lactating girls aged 14–18 years	2.3 litres (about 9 cups)
Lactating women	2.6 litres (about 10 cups)

* from breastmilk or formula
# from breastmilk, formula, food, plain water and other beverages

These adequate intakes include all fluids, but it’s preferable that the majority of intake is from plain water (except for infants where fluid intake is met by breastmilk or infant formula).

Some people may need less fluid than this. For example, people:

• Who eat a lot of high-water content foods (such as fruits and vegetables).
• In cold environments.
• Who are largely sedentary.

Other people might need more fluid than the amount listed and will need to increase their fluid intake if they are: 

• On a high-protein diet, to help the kidneys process the extra protein.
• On a high-fibre diet to help prevent constipation.
• Vomiting or have diarrhoea, to replace the extra fluids lost.
• Physically active, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat.
• Exposed to warm or hot conditions, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat. 

Although activity levels affect the amount of fluid needed, there are many factors that influence the fluid needs of athletes during training and competition. For example, it is likely that athletes exercising in mild conditions will need less fluid than athletes competing at high intensities in warm conditions. 

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How to get enough fluid in your diet

If the idea of having to drink lots of cups of water a day doesn’t appeal, don’t worry – fluids include fresh water and all other liquids, such as milk, coffee, tea, soup, juice and even soft drinks. 

Fresh water is the best drink because it does not contain energy (kilojoules) and is best for hydrating the body. Water from the tap is also mostly free and generally available wherever you go.

However, milk is about 90 per cent water and is an important fluid, especially for children. Just remember to choose full-fat milk for children under two years old and low-fat and reduced-fat varieties for everyone else.

Tea can also be an important source of fluid. Tea can help you meet your daily fluid recommendations, and is a source of antioxidants and polyphenols, which appear to protect against heart disease and cancer.

If you prefer to get some of your fluids from fruit, aim to eat whole pieces of fresh fruit instead of having fruit juice – you’ll still get the delicious fruity juice (fluids) but you’ll also benefit from the bonus fibre and nutrients while avoiding the extra sugar found in fruit juice.

Tips for drinking more water

• Add a squeeze or slice of lemon or lime, or some strawberries or mint leaves to plain water to add variety.
• Keep a bottle or glass of water handy on your desk or in your bag.
• Drink some water with each meal and snack.
• Add ice cubes made from fresh fruit to a glass of water.

Limit mineral water intake

Commercially bottled mineral water contains salt, which can lead to fluid retention and swelling, and even increased blood pressure in susceptible people. Limit the amount of mineral water or choose low-sodium varieties (less than 30 mg sodium per 100 ml).

If you prefer bubbly water, think about getting a home soda water maker so you can just use tap water and make it fresh when needed.

Water fluoridation

An additional benefit of drinking tap (reticulated or mains) water in Victoria is that, in most areas, fluoride is added to the water. Bottled water does not usually have good levels of fluoride. Fluoridation of tap water helps prevent dental decay and is a safe and effective way of providing dental health benefits to everyone. 

  

Avoid sugary and artificially sweetened drinks

The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend all Australians to limit their intake of drinks containing added sugar. This includes sugar-sweetened soft drinks and cordials, fruit drinks, vitamin-style waters, flavoured mineral waters, energy and sports drinks.

Having sugary drinks provides additional energy (kilojoules) to the diet, but no other essential nutrients. There is strong evidence of the association between having sugary dinks and excess weight gain in both children and adults, as well as reduced bone strength and tooth decay.

Artificially sweetened drinks add very little energy (kilojoules) to the diet and therefore do not contribute directly to weight gain. However, artificially sweetened drinks still maintain the ‘habit’ of drinking sweet drinks. They may also lead to decreased bone density (as people may drink less milk) and contribute to tooth decay due to their acidity. 

Dehydration 

Dehydration occurs when the water content of the body is too low. This is easily fixed by increasing fluid intake. 

Symptoms of dehydration

Symptoms of dehydration include:

• Thirst.
• Headaches.
• Lethargy.
• Mood changes and slow responses.
• Dry nasal passages.
• Dry or cracked lips.
• Dark-coloured urine.
• Weakness.
• Tiredness.
• Confusion and hallucinations.

If dehydration is not corrected by fluid intake, eventually urination stops, the kidneys fail, and the body can’t remove toxic waste products. In extreme cases, dehydration may result in death. 

Causes of dehydration

There are several factors that can cause dehydration including: 

• Not drinking enough water.
• Increased sweating due to hot weather, humidity, exercise or fever.
• Insufficient signalling mechanisms in the elderly – sometimes, older adults do not feel thirsty even though they may be dehydrated.
• Increased output of urine due to a hormone deficiency, diabetes, kidney disease or medications.
• Diarrhoea or vomiting.
• Recovering from burns.

At-risk groups for dehydration

Anyone can experience dehydration but there are some people who can be more at risk – such as babies, children and the elderly. 

Babies and children

Babies and children are susceptible to dehydration, particularly if they are ill. Vomiting, fever and diarrhoea can quickly cause dehydration. 

Dehydration can be a life-threatening condition in babies and children. If you suspect dehydration, take your baby or child to the nearest hospital emergency department immediately.

Some of the symptoms of dehydration in babies and children include: 

• Cold skin.
• Lethargy.
• Dry mouth.
• A blue tinge to the skin as the circulation slows.
• In babies, depressed fontanelle (the soft spot on top of a baby’s skull where the bones are yet to close).

Types of dehydration

There are three types of dehydration : (1) isotonic dehydration in which net salt and water loss is equal, (2) hypertonic dehydration characterized by loss of water in excess of salt and (3) hypotonic dehydration, characterized by loss of salt in excess of water.

1. 1 In isotonic dehydration, salt may be lost isotonically from the gastrointestinal tract, such as after profuse diarrhoea . Only the ECF volume is reduced, and treatment is the prescription of isotonic salt solutions, such as the World health Organization’s rehydration solution for the treatment of diarrhoea, a solution that is widely used in developing countries.
2. 2 Inadequate water intake and excessive water loss are the two mechanisms responsible for the development of hypertonic dehydration. Insufficient water intake may be caused by defective thirst or impaired consciousness, or by a lack of available water. Large water loss may result from osmotic diuresis or diabetes insipidus. Vomiting is accompanied by a loss of hydrochloric acid, which is almost equivalent to the loss of pure water because NaHCO3 (which is finally absorbed and passes into the blood) replaces it. Sweating can represent an important hypotonic fluid loss when exercising in a hot environment.
3. 3 Hypotonic dehydration occurs when losses of gastrointestinal fluids (which are either hypotonic or isotonic in relation to plasma) are replaced by water, or by a solution that contains less Na⁺ and K⁺ than the fluid that has been lost The reduced osmolarity of ECF causes a shift of water into the intracellular fluid to reach osmotic balance. Hence, cell volume increases in spite of a reduction in ECF. Treatment of hypotonic dehydration may need both hypertonic saline to restore the osmolarity of body fluids and isotonic saline to compensate the loss of ECF.

Elderly people

Older people are often at risk of dehydration due to: 

• Changes to kidney function, which declines with age.
• Hormonal changes.
• Not feeling thirsty (because the mechanisms in the body that trigger thirst do not work as well as we age).
• Medication (for example, diuretics and laxatives).
• Chronic illness.
• Limited mobility.

Getting the right balance of fluid intake

Not drinking enough water can increase the risk of kidney stones and, in women, urinary tract infections. It can also lower your physical and mental performance, and your salivary gland function, and lead to dehydration.

But did you know that it is possible to drink too much water and cause a condition called hyponatraemia (water intoxication)? 

Water intoxication (hyponatraemia)

Drinking too much water can damage the body and cause hyponatraemia (water intoxication), although it is pretty rare in the general population.

Hyponatraemia occurs when sodium in the blood, which is needed for muscle contraction and sending nerve impulses, drops to a dangerously low level.  

If large amounts of plain water are consumed in a short period of time, the kidneys cannot get rid of enough fluid through urine and the blood becomes diluted. Hyponatraemia can lead to headaches, blurred vision, cramps (and eventually convulsions), swelling of the brain, coma and possibly death. 

For water to reach toxic levels, many litres of water would have to be consumed in a short period of time.
Hyponatraemia is most common in people with particular diseases or mental illnesses (for example, in some cases of schizophrenia), endurance athletes and in infants who are fed infant formula that is too diluted.

Fluid retention

Many people believe that drinking water causes fluid retention. In fact, the opposite is true. Drinking water helps the body rid itself of excess sodium, which results in less fluid retention. 

The body will retain fluid if there is too little water in the cells. If the body receives enough water on a regular basis, there will be no need for it to hold onto water and this will reduce fluid retention.

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Counting calories and eating for weight loss is one thing, but what about basic nutrition? Your overall nutrition is not only important for health, but can also significantly impact how successful you are on any diet. And not getting the right amount or adequate amounts can lead to everything from poor energy and performance to chronic disease and serious health conditions. 

Keep reading to get to know the basics of how your body ticks and where to get everything you need to live a healthy lifestyle, regardless of what meal plan or diet approach you are taking. 

Nutrition 101

Getting good nutrition is essentially the act of supplying your body with the necessary nutrients you need to thrive. And nutrients are classified into two categories, based on the amount required by our bodies: macronutrients and micronutrients.

Both groups of nutrients provide all of the necessary elements to promote our bodies’ growth and development and to regulate our bodies’ processes. However, since everyone’s body is different, it’s important to know what the right balance between these nutrients are for your body and for your specific goals. 

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Macronutrients

In the simplest form, macronutrients are the elements in food needed for a person to grow and function. They are needed in large quantities in comparison to other nutrients which is why they are called “macro” nutrients and are commonly referred to as “macros”.

Macros provide all of the calories you get from food and beverages – nutrition facts labels actually use macros grams to calculate how many calories are in the food. 

Generally, macronutrients are broken into three groups: carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Alcohol is also considered a macro since it provides calories, but it is not a considered an important source of nutrition, so it is often left out when counting macros. 

Each macro provides a different calorie amount per gram – 4 grams per calorie for protein and carbs, and 9 grams of calories for fat (alcohol provides 7 grams per calorie). And even though all macros provide valuable energy, each macro has a different function in your body. 

Because macros are essentially your calories organized into key groups, learning how to balance and track your macros is a popular approach to weight loss and better fitness results. 

Carbohydrates

We use carbohydrates for quick energy – they are your body’s favorite source of fuel because it doesn’t take a lot of work to get energy from carbs. Our bodies easily break down this macronutrient into glucose (sugar) which is the same type of sugar found in your blood. Our brains and muscles are the biggest users of glucose, but all cells in our bodies use it to function. But the amount of carbs you need each day can differ from one person to the next based on activity level, weight, muscle mass, overall health, etc.

However, carbs are not essential for survival. Your body has a work-around when carbs are not present for extended periods of time, or possibly forever, using fat and protein instead. This is how the keto diet works! 

In addition, not all carbs are created equal. Carbs come from all plant based foods and some dairy, but they can also come from directly from added sugar and many processed, unhealthy foods. Because carbs are so easy to get in the diet, they can tend to get a bad rap. But choosing more wholesome sources include whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and beans, can improve your overall nutrition and allow you to still be successful in losing weight.

Sugar

All carbs are technically a type of sugar, but not all of them act the same way when it comes to your health. Naturally occurring sugar – like the kind found in fruits, milk and legumes, is often confused with added sugar. Sugar from whole foods tend to be combined with other key nutrients and don;t always cause a spike in blood sugar. Whereas added sugar tends to be found in mostly processed foods, and when eaten alone (like in a sugar sweetened soda) can certainly impact your energy and insulin levels more drastically than other carbs.

By rule of thumb, you should aim to limit added sugars and focus on more naturally occurring sources from plant based foods. 

Starch

Starchy carbs are often referred to as “complex carbs”. This type of carb takes the longest to break down, providing more sustained energy and less impact on your blood sugar levels. Common starchy foods include corn, beans, potatoes and whole grains. 

Fiber

And lastly fiber! Many people don’t realize that fiber is actually a type of carbohydrate. But fiber is not as easily digested, and cannot be absorbed by the body, making it significantly different than other carb types. There are two main types of fiber, soluble fiber that helps draw water into your gut, aiding in feelings of fullness and promoting heart health (as it draws water in, it can also grab cholesterol among other things with it). And insoluble fiber that sort of pushes everything through, supporting digestion and regularity. 

The best sources of fiber include whole grains, beans, nuts, seeds, fruits and vegetables. 

Protein

Protein is the “builder” macro and unlike carbs, it is essential for good nutrition. In fact, protein plays such a unique role, it is often your last resort for daily energy and instead used to build, repair and maintain your entire self. 

We need protein in our diets because it provides us with essential amino acids that we cannot make ourselves. Our bodies are like recycling geniuses that can take an old pallet (plant and animal protein), break it down (into amino acids), and make a bench from the parts (new protein). Proteins play a part in all of our bodies’ functions from our nervous system to our digestive system, and our entire body, cells, DNA, etc. is all made up of proteins. 

Healthy sources include beans, nuts and seeds, lean meats, and eggs. And while animal sources of protein have the highest protein content per calorie, you can also meet your protein needs without eating animal products on a vegan or vegetarian diet.

Fat

Fats, like protein, are also an essential dietary must – they are a great long-term source of energy and also play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, hormone regulation, and promoting healthy cell function.

Fat tends to get a bad rap because it is the most calorie dense macro (providing more calories per volume) and when eaten in excess it can easily stored as body fat. But other macros can also be stored as body fat and this process requires you to eat more calories than you need – leading to weight gain. There is no need to fear fat as long as your calories are controlled and you are using an overall macro balance that works for you. 

Healthy sources of fat include eggs, fatty fish, nuts and seeds, healthy oils, and avocados.

Saturated Fat

It is highly debated whether saturated fats are needed, but it is widely agreed we should not consume them in high amounts. While the research is torn over whether or not they are 100% “bad”, high intakes of saturated fat has been associated with increased blood cholesterol in numerous studies and we haven’t found in true health benefits of this type of fat either .

Saturated fats are mostly found in animal products like milk, cheese, and meats, but they are also found in smaller amounts in plant sources such as seeds and nuts, avocados, and plant oils.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a type of fat used to make hormones, Vitamin D, and digestive substances. But it is not necessary to consume high amounts of cholesterol because our bodies can make it from the fat we eat. Research has also indicated that dietary cholesterol may not be as strongly linked to blood cholesterol as we once though, but it is probably still good practice to avoid going overboard .

Major dietary sources of cholesterol include cheese, egg yolks, and fatty meats. It is not found in significant amounts in plant sources.

Micronutrients are one of the major groups of nutrients your body needs. They include vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.

This article provides a detailed overview of micronutrients, their functions and implications of excess consumption or deficiency.

What Are Micronutrients?

The term micronutrients is used to describe vitamins and minerals in general.

Macronutrients, on the other hand, include proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

Your body needs smaller amounts of micronutrients relative to macronutrients. That’s why they’re labeled “micro.”

Humans must obtain micronutrients from food since your body cannot produce vitamins and minerals — for the most part. That’s why they’re also referred to as essential nutrients.

Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants and animals which can be broken down by heat, acid or air. On the other hand, minerals are inorganic, exist in soil or water and cannot be broken down.

When you eat, you consume the vitamins that plants and animals created or the minerals they absorbed.

The micronutrient content of each food is different, so it’s best to eat a variety of foods to get enough vitamins and minerals.

An adequate intake of all micronutrients is necessary for optimal health, as each vitamin and mineral has a specific role in your body.

Vitamins and minerals are vital for growth, immune function, brain development and many other important functions.

Depending on their function, certain micronutrients also play a role in preventing and fighting disease

Summary

Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. They’re critical for several important functions in your body and must be consumed from food.

Types and Functions of Micronutrients

Vitamins and minerals can be divided into four categories: water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, macrominerals and trace minerals.

Regardless of type, vitamins and minerals are absorbed in similar ways in your body and interact in many processes.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Most vitamins dissolve in water and are therefore known as water-soluble. They’re not easily stored in your body and get flushed out with urine when consumed in excess.

While each water-soluble vitamin has a unique role, their functions are related.

For example, most B vitamins act as coenzymes that help trigger important chemical reactions. A lot of these reactions are necessary for energy production.

The water-soluble vitamins — with some of their functions — are:

• Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Helps convert nutrients into energy.
• Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): Necessary for energy production, cell function and fat metabolism.
• Vitamin B3 (niacin): Drives the production of energy from food.
• Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): Necessary for fatty acid synthesis .
• Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine): Helps your body release sugar from stored carbohydrates for energy and create red blood cells .
• Vitamin B7 (biotin): Plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids and glucose .
• Vitamin B9 (folate): Important for proper cell division .
• Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): Necessary for red blood cell formation and proper nervous system and brain function
• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Required for the creation of neurotransmitters and collagen, the main protein in your skin.

As you can see, water-soluble vitamins play an important role in producing energy but also have several other functions.

Since these vitamins are not stored in your body, it’s important to get enough of them from food.

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Sources and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) or Adequate Intakes (AIs) of water-soluble vitamins are

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)	Whole grains, meat, fish	1.1–1.2 mg
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)	Organ meats, eggs, milk	1.1–1.3 mg
Vitamin B3 (niacin)	Meat, salmon, leafy greens, beans	14–16 mg
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)	Organ meats, mushrooms, tuna, avocado	5 mg
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)	Fish, milk, carrots, potatoes	1.3 mg
Vitamin B7 (biotin)	Eggs, almonds, spinach, sweet potatoes	30 mcg
Vitamin B9 (folate)	Beef, liver, black-eyed peas, spinach, asparagus	400 mg
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)	Clams, fish, meat	2.4 mcg
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	Citrus fruits, bell peppers, Brussels sprouts	75–90 mg

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins do not dissolve in water.

They’re best absorbed when consumed alongside a source of fat. After consumption, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your liver and fatty tissues for future use.

The names and functions of fat-soluble vitamins are:

• Vitamin A: Necessary for proper vision and organ function .
• Vitamin D: Promotes proper immune function and assists in calcium absorption and bone growth.
• Vitamin E: Assists immune function and acts as an antioxidant that protects cells from damage.
• Vitamin K: Required for blood clotting and proper bone development.

Sources and recommended intakes of fat-soluble vitamins are:

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Vitamin A	Retinol (liver, dairy, fish), carotenoids (sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach)	700–900 mcg
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish oil, milk	600–800 IU
Vitamin E	Sunflower seeds, wheat germ, almonds	15 mg
Vitamin K	Leafy greens, soybeans, pumpkin	90–120 mcg

Macrominerals

Macrominerals are needed in larger amounts than trace minerals in order to perform their specific roles in your body.

The macrominerals and some of their functions are:

• Calcium: Necessary for proper structure and function of bones and teeth. Assists in muscle function and blood vessel contraction.
• Phosphorus: Part of bone and cell membrane structure.
• Magnesium: Assists with over 300 enzyme reactions, including regulation of blood pressure.
• Sodium: Electrolyte that aids fluid balance and maintenance of blood pressure
• Chloride: Often found in combination with sodium. Helps maintain fluid balance and is used to make digestive juices.
• Potassium: Electrolyte that maintains fluid status in cells and helps with nerve transmission and muscle function .
• Sulfur: Part of every living tissue and contained in the amino acids methionine and cysteine

Sources and recommended intakes of the macrominerals are

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Calcium	Milk products, leafy greens, broccoli	2,000–2,500 mg
Phosphorus	Salmon, yogurt, turkey	700 mg
Magnesium	Almonds, cashews, black beans	310–420 mg
Sodium	Salt, processed foods, canned soup	2,300 mg
Chloride	Seaweed, salt, celery	1,800–2,300 mg
Potassium	Lentils, acorn squash, bananas	4,700 mg
Sulfur	Garlic, onions, Brussels sprouts, eggs, mineral water	None established

Trace Minerals

Trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts than macrominerals but still enable important functions in your body.

The trace minerals and some of their functions are:

• Iron: Helps provide oxygen to muscles and assists in the creation of certain hormones.
• Manganese: Assists in carbohydrate, amino acid and cholesterol metabolism.
• Copper: Required for connective tissue formation, as well as normal brain and nervous system function .
• Zinc: Necessary for normal growth, immune function and wound healing.
• Iodine: Assists in thyroid regulation.
• Fluoride: Necessary for the development of bones and teeth.
• Selenium: Important for thyroid health, reproduction and defense against oxidative damage .

Sources and recommended intakes of trace minerals are:

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Iron	Oysters, white beans, spinach	8–18 mg
Manganese	Pineapple, pecans, peanuts	1.8–2.3 mg
Copper	Liver, crabs, cashews	900 mcg
Zinc	Oysters, crab, chickpeas	8–11 mg
Iodine	Seaweed, cod, yogurt	150 mcg
Fluoride	Fruit juice, water, crab	3–4 mg
Selenium	Brazil nuts, sardines, ham	55 mcg

Summary

Micronutrients can be divided into four groups — water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, macrominerals and trace minerals. The functions, food sources and recommended intakes of each vitamin and mineral vary.

Health Benefits of Micronutrients

All micronutrients are extremely important for the proper functioning of your body.

Consuming an adequate amount of the different vitamins and minerals is key to optimal health and may even help fight disease.

This is because micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Moreover, certain vitamins and minerals can act as antioxidants.

Antioxidants may protect against cell damage that has been associated with certain diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer’s and heart disease

For example, research has linked an adequate dietary intake of vitamins A and C with a lower risk of some types of cancer

Getting enough of some vitamins may also help prevent Alzheimer’s disease. A review of seven studies found that adequate dietary intake of vitamins E, C and A is associated with a 24%, 17% and 12% reduced risk of developing Alzheimer’s, respectively .

Certain minerals may also play a role in preventing and fighting disease.

Research has linked low blood levels of selenium to a higher risk of heart disease. A review of observational studies found that the risk of heart disease decreased by 24% when blood concentrations of selenium increased by 50%.

Additionally, a review of 22 studies noticed that adequate calcium intake decreases the risk of death from heart disease and all other causes.

These studies suggest that consuming enough of all micronutrients — especially those with antioxidant properties — provides ample health benefits.

However, it’s unclear whether consuming more than the recommended amounts of certain micronutrients — either from foods or supplements — offers additional benefits

Summary

Micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Some even act as antioxidants. Due to their important role in health, they may protect against diseases.

Micronutrient Deficiencies and Toxicities

Micronutrients are needed in specific amounts to perform their unique functions in your body.

Getting too much or too little of a vitamin or mineral can lead to negative side effects.

Deficiencies

Most healthy adults can get an adequate amount of micronutrients from a balanced diet, but there are some common nutrient deficiencies that affect certain populations.

These include:

• Vitamin D: Approximately 77% of Americans are deficient in vitamin D, mostly due to lack of sun exposure.
• Vitamin B12: Vegans and vegetarians may develop vitamin B12 deficiency from refraining from animal products. Elderly individuals are also at risk due to decreased absorption with age.
• Vitamin A: The diets of women and children in developing countries often lack adequate vitamin A.
• Iron: Deficiency of this mineral is common among preschool children, menstruating women and vegans .
• Calcium: Close to 22% and 10% of men and women over 50, respectively, don’t get enough calcium.

The signs, symptoms and long-term effects of these deficiencies depend on each nutrient but can be detrimental to the proper functioning of your body and optimal health.

Toxicities

Micronutrient toxicities are less common than deficiencies.

They are most likely to occur with large doses of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K since these nutrients can be stored in your liver and fatty tissues. They cannot be excreted from your body like water-soluble vitamins.

A micronutrient toxicity usually develops from supplementing with excess amounts — rarely from food sources. Signs and symptoms of toxicity vary depending on the nutrient.

It’s important to note that excessive consumption of certain nutrients can still be dangerous even if it does not lead to overt toxicity symptoms.

One study examined over 18,000 people with a high risk of lung cancer due to past smoking or asbestos exposure. The intervention group received two types of vitamin A — 30 mg of beta-carotene and 25,000 IU of retinyl palmitate a day .

The trial was halted ahead of schedule when the intervention group showed 28% more cases of lung cancer and a 17% greater incidence of death over 11 years compared to the control group.

Micronutrient Supplements

The safest and most effective way to get adequate vitamin and mineral intake appears to be from food sources.

More research is needed to fully understand the long-term effects of toxicities and supplements.

However, people at risk of specific nutrient deficiencies may benefit from taking supplements under the supervision of a doctor.

If you’re interested in taking micronutrient supplements, look for products certified by a third party. Unless otherwise directed by a healthcare provider, be sure to avoid products that contain “super” or “mega” doses of any nutrient.

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Vitamins and minerals are only needed in small quantities in the body, but their role is essential to overall health and proper functioning of all body systems. And while many vitamins and minerals work together to perform various functions in the body, they are classified based on their independent characteristics. These characteristics impact not only how we obtain them in our diets, but also how we absorb them and store them, as well as how we experience deficiencies or toxicities when too little or too much is consumed. After we review the classifications for vitamins and minerals, we will examine key vitamins and minerals based on their similar functions to further highlight the importance of how these micronutrients work together.

Vitamins

The name “vitamin” comes from Casimir Funk, who in 1912 thought “vital amines” (similar to amino acids) were responsible for preventing what we know now as vitamin deficiencies. He coined the term “vitamines” to describe these organic substances that were recognized as essential for life, yet unlike other organic nutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fat), do not provide energy to the body. Eventually, when scientists discovered that these compounds were not amines, the ‘e’ was dropped to form the term “vitamins.”¹

Classification of Vitamins

Vitamins are essential, non-caloric, organic micronutrients. There is energy contained in the chemical bonds of vitamin molecules, but our bodies don’t make the enzymes to break these bonds and release their energy; instead, vitamins serve other essential functions in the body. Vitamins are traditionally categorized into two groups: water-soluble or fat-soluble. Whether vitamins are water-soluble or fat-soluble can affect their functions and sites of action. For example, water-soluble vitamins often act in the cytosol of cells (the fluid inside of cells) or in extracellular fluids such as blood, while fat-soluble vitamins play roles such as protecting cell membranes from free radical damage or acting within the cell’s nucleus to influence gene expression.

Classification of vitamins as water-soluble or fat-soluble.

One major difference between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins is the way they are absorbed in the body. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly from the small intestine into the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are first incorporated into chylomicrons, along with fatty acids, and transported through the lymphatic system to the bloodstream and then on to the liver. The bioavailability (i.e., the amount that gets absorbed) of these vitamins is dependent on the food composition of the diet. Because fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with dietary fat, if a meal is very low in fat, the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins in that meal may be impaired.

. “Absorption of Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins.”

Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins also differ in how they are stored in the body. The fat-soluble vitamins—vitamins A, D, E, and K—can be stored in the liver and the fatty tissues of the body. The ability to store these vitamins allows the body to draw on these stores when dietary intake is low, so deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins may take months to develop as the body stores become depleted. On the flip side, the body’s storage capacity for fat-soluble vitamins increases the risk for toxicity. While toxic levels are typically only achieved through vitamin supplements, if large quantities of fat-soluble vitamins are consumed, either through foods or supplements, vitamin levels can build up in the liver and fatty tissues, leading to symptoms of toxicity.

There is limited storage capacity in the body for water-soluble vitamins, thus making it important to consume these vitamins on a daily basis. Deficiency of water-soluble vitamins is more common than fat-soluble vitamin deficiency because of this lack of storage. That also means toxicity of water-soluble vitamins is rare. Because of their solubility in water, intake of these vitamins in amounts above what is needed by the body can, to some extent, be excreted in the urine, leading to a lower risk of toxicity. Similar to fat-soluble vitamins, a toxic intake of water-soluble vitamins is not common through food sources, but is most frequently seen due to supplement use.

Characteristics of Fat-Soluble Vitamins	Characteristics of Water-Soluble Vitamins
Protect cell membranes from free radical damage; act within the cell’s nucleus to influence gene expression	Act in the cytosol of cells or in extracellular fluids such as blood
Absorbed into lymph with fats from foods	Absorbed directly into blood
Large storage capacity in fatty tissues	Little to no storage capacity
Do not need to be consumed daily to prevent deficiency (may take months to develop)	Need to be consumed regularly to prevent deficiency
Toxicity is more likely	Toxicity is rare

. Characteristics of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.

Minerals

Similarly to vitamins, minerals are micronutrients that are essential to human health and can be obtained in our diet from different types of food. Minerals are abundant in our everyday lives. From the soil in your front yard to the jewelry you wear on your body, we interact with minerals constantly. Minerals are inorganic elements in their simplest form, originating from the Earth. They can’t be broken down or used as an energy source, but like vitamins, serve essential functions based on their individual characteristics. Living organisms can’t make minerals, so the minerals our bodies need must come from the diet. Plants obtain minerals from the soil they grow in. Humans obtain minerals from eating plants, as well as indirectly from eating animal products (because the animal consumed minerals in the plants it ate). We also get minerals from the water we drink. The mineral content of soil and water varies from place to place, so the mineral composition of foods and water differs based on geographic location.²

Classification of Minerals

Minerals are classified as either major minerals or trace minerals, depending on the amount needed in the body. Major minerals are those that are required in the diet in amounts larger than 100 milligrams each day. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in many foods. While deficiencies are possible with minerals, consuming a varied diet significantly improves an individual’s ability to meet their nutrient needs. We’ll discuss the concern of both deficiencies and toxicities of specific minerals later in this unit.

Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet in smaller amounts, specifically 100 milligrams or less per day. These include iron, copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, and molybdenum. Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts, a deficiency of a trace mineral can be just as detrimental to your health as a major mineral deficiency.

The classification of minerals as either major minerals or trace minerals.

Minerals are water-soluble and do not require enzymatic digestion. They are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, although some minerals need the assistance of transport proteins for absorption and transport in blood.

Minerals are not as efficiently absorbed as most vitamins, and many factors influence their bioavailability:

• Minerals are generally better absorbed from animal-based foods. Plant-based foods often contain compounds that can bind to minerals and inhibit their absorption (e.g., oxalates, phytates).
• In most cases, if dietary intake of a particular mineral is increased, absorption will decrease.
• Some minerals influence the absorption of others. For instance, excess zinc in the diet can impair iron and copper absorption. Conversely, certain vitamins enhance mineral absorption. For example, vitamin C boosts iron absorption, and vitamin D boosts calcium and magnesium absorption.
• As is the case with vitamins, mineral absorption can be impaired by certain gastrointestinal disorders and other diseases, such as Crohn’s disease and kidney disease, as well as the aging process. Thus, people with malabsorption conditions and the elderly are at higher risk for mineral deficiencies.

Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are present in foods containing fats. The body absorbs these vitamins as it does dietary fats. They do not dissolve in water.

Vitamins help the body function effectively. There are two types: water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamins B and C.

Most vitamins come from food, but sunshine contributes to vitamin D. Some people need or choose to take supplements that provide extra vitamins.

The body absorbs fat-soluble vitamins best when a person eats them with higher-fat foods.

This article looks at the types, functions, and sources of fat-soluble vitamins, and what can happen if a person has too much or too little.

Vitamin A

Carrots are a dietary source of vitamin A.

Vitamin A helps maintain healthy vision. Without vitamin A, a person could experience vision problems and possibly vision loss.

Types

Vitamin A is not a single vitamin but a collection of compounds known as retinoids. Retinoids occur naturally in the human body, and they are present in some dietary sources.

Some foods provide retinols, which the body can use directly as vitamin A. Others provide provitamin A, compounds that the body converts into vitamin A.

Function

Vitamin A supports several functions throughout the body, including:

• vision
• the immune system

Dietary sources

People can obtain vitamin A through dietary sources.

Animal sources provide preformed vitamin A, or retinols. This type is ready for the body to use.

Plant sources provide carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, which is a powerful antioxidant. The body can convert these into vitamin A.

For this reason, lists of ingredients often show vitamin A content as “vitamin A RAE.” RAE means “retinol activity equivalents.”

Animal sources of vitamin A include:

• fish liver oil
• beef liver
• cheese, milk, and other dairy products
• Sources of beta carotene include:
• sweet potato
• kale, spinach, and other green, leafy vegetables
• carrots
• cantaloupe
• black-eyed peas
• fortified breakfast cereals

Recommended intake

Nutritionists measure some vitamins in two ways:

• micrograms (mcg) RAE
• international units (IU)

Food packages usually show the amounts in IU. A diet that contains 900 mcg RAE of vitamin A, which is the recommended intake for males over 14 years of age, would provide around 3,000–36,000 IU of vitamin A, according to the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS).

Anyone who has concerns about their vitamin A intake should seek advice from a health professional, who will help them understand these measures.

The recommended intake of vitamin A varies by age and sex.

The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for AmericansTrusted Source recommend consuming the following amounts each day. Amounts are in mcg RAE.

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14 and over
Female	300	400	600	700
Male	300	400	600	900

Deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is rare in the United States, but it can affect a person who:

• follows a plant-based diet
• has cystic fibrosis

A long-term deficiency can lead to a loss of night vision and possibly a total loss of vision.

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Overdose

Too much vitamin A can be toxic.

It can affect:

• people who take vitamin A supplements
• those with a high intake of fish liver oil
• people who take medications that contain retinoids, such as acitretin (Soriatane), a treatment for psoriasis

During pregnancy, high levels of vitamin A can harm a growing fetus.

Symptoms of an overdose include:

• headaches
• fatigue
• nausea
• dizziness

In severe cases, coma and death can result.

Vitamin A supplements are available for purchase online. However, people should speak to a doctor before taking these or other supplements.

Vitamin D

People obtain vitamin D:

• naturally through exposure to sunlight or in the diet
• through fortified foods
• as supplements

The body obtains the compounds it needs to make vitamin D from food. It also produces vitamin D when ultraviolet (UV) light meets the skin.

Types

Vitamin D is not a single substance but a group of compounds collectively known as calciferol.

The body absorbs calciferol into the bloodstream and then converts it to calcitriol.

Two types occur naturally:

• vitamin D-3, found in animal fats
• vitamin D-2, found in plants, such as mushrooms

Function

Vitamin D has two main roles in the body:

• It maintains bone health.
• It supports the immune system.

Dietary sources

A person can obtain some vitamin D from the sun, but most people will also need to use other sources, too. The main alternative is food.

Dietary sources include:

• oily fish and fish oils
• fortified dairy products, plant-based milks, and cereals
• beef liver
• eggs

Recommended intake

Experts measure vitamin D in international units (IU).

Current guidelinesTrusted Source recommend that people of all ages intake of 600 IU of vitamin D daily. This is hard to measure, however, as it is not easy for a person to know how much vitamin D they obtain from sunlight.

Deficiency

A vitamin D deficiency can affect:

• older adults and children who do not spend much time out of doors
• people with darker skin
• some people with chronic health conditions
• those who live far from the Equator, where winter days are short
• those with obesity

The main effects of vitamin D deficiency include:

• osteoporosis, or loss of bone mass

• osteomalacia, when bones become soft
• rickets, when a child’s bones do not develop as they should
• increased risk of infection and autoimmunity

Overdose

It is rare for a person to have too much vitamin D, but using supplements could trigger this.

Having too much vitamin D could lead to high levels of calcium in the blood.

This can lead to:

• nausea
• headaches
• low appetite and weight loss
• a buildup of calcium in tissues and blood vessels
• heart or kidney damage
• high blood pressure

Vitamin D supplements are available for purchase in pharmacies and online. A person should speak to their doctor before using these supplements, however.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is an antioxidant that can help the body destroy free radicals. Free radicals are unstable atoms that can cause oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can lead to cell damage, and this can result in cancer and other diseases. Vitamin E may help protect the body from a range of health issues.

Types

There are eight forms of vitamin E, but only alpha-tocopherol meets humans’ needs, according to the ODS.

Function

Some reasons why the body needs vitamin E are:

• as an antioxidant
• to boost the immune system
• to dilate blood vessels and help prevent clotting

Dietary sources

Good sources of vitamin E include:

• wheat germ oil
• sunflower seeds and oil
• almonds, hazelnuts, and peanuts
• spinach and broccoli
• kiwi fruit and mango

Recommended intake

Current guidelinesTrusted Source recommend people consume the following amounts of vitamin E. Experts measure vitamin E intake in milligrams (mg) AT, but packaging currently uses international units (IU).

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14 and over
Female	6 mg (9IU)	7 mg (10.4 IU)	11 mg (16.4 IU)	15 mg (22.4 IU)
Male	6 mg (9IU)	7 mg (10.4 IU)	11 mg (16.4 IU)	15 mg (22.4 IU)

The ODS note that, during breastfeeding, a female should consume 19 mg (28.4 IU) each day.

Deficiency

Vitamin E deficiency is rare, but it can affect people with Crohn’s disease or cystic fibrosis. These conditions affect the liver’s ability to absorb vitamin E.

A deficiency can result in:

• nerve and muscle damage that affects movement and coordination
• vision problems
• a weakened immune system

As vitamin E is an antioxidant, a long-term deficiency could increase the overall risk of various diseases.

Overdose

Obtaining vitamin E through natural sources is unlikely to lead to an overdose, although supplement use can increase this risk.

People who use blood-thinning medication, such as warfarin (Coumadin) should ask their doctor before taking vitamin E supplements, as these may interfere with blood clotting.

Vitamin E supplements are available for purchase in pharmacies

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Vitamin K

Vitamin K helps the body form blood clots. Blood clotting is essential to prevent excessive bleeding.

Types

There are several types of vitamin K.

The two most common groups are:

• Vitamin K-1 (phylloquinone), present in green, leafy vegetables and some other plant sources
• Vitamin K-2 (menaquinones), present in animal sources and fermented foods

There are also synthetic forms and other forms that the body makes.

Function

Apart from blood clotting, vitamin K may also:

• lower the risk of heart disease
• enhance bone health
• reduce the buildup of calcium in the blood

Dietary sources

Food sources of vitamin K-1 and K-2 include:

• kale
• liver
• spinach
• parsley
• butter
• egg yolks

Recommended intake

Experts do not have enough evidence to recommend a specific intake of vitamin K suitable to meet the needs of 97-98% of healthy individuals.

Instead, they recommend an adequate intake , an amount assumed to provide nutritional adequacy, as follows:

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14–18	19 and over
Female	30	55	60	75	90
Male	30	55	60	75	120

Deficiency

The body is not able to store as much vitamin K as it does vitamin A or D. This means a person needs a regular intake of vitamin K, and there is a higher chance of a deficiency.

A vitamin K deficiency may result in:

• excess bleeding
• lower bone density, in the long term

Water-soluble vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins travel freely through the body, and excess amounts usually are excreted by the kidneys. The body needs water-soluble vitamins in frequent, small doses. These vitamins are not as likely as fat-soluble vitamins to reach toxic levels. But niacin, vitamin B6, folate, choline, and vitamin C have upper consumption limits. Vitamin B6 at high levels over a long period of time has been shown to cause irreversible nerve damage.

A balanced diet usually provides enough of these vitamins. People older than 50 and some vegetarians may need to use supplements to get enough B12.

Nutrient	Function	Sources
Thiamine (vitamin B1)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function	Found in all nutritious foods in moderate amounts: pork, whole grain foods or enriched breads and cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health	Milk and milk products; leafy green vegetables; whole grain foods, enriched breads and cereals
Niacin (vitamin B3)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health	Meat, poultry, fish, whole grain foods, enriched breads and cereals, vegetables (especially mushrooms, asparagus, and leafy green vegetables), peanut butter
Pantothenic acid	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism	Widespread in foods
Biotin	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism	Widespread in foods; also produced in intestinal tract by bacteria
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)	Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells	Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits
Folic acid	Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells	Leafy green vegetables and legumes, seeds, orange juice, and liver; now added to most refined grains
Cobalamin (vitamin B12)	Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function	Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and milk products; not found in plant foods
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)	Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption	Found only in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, vegetables in the cabbage family, cantaloupe, strawberries, peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce, papayas, mangoes, kiwifruit

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Eating nutritious foods can improve your health and energy levels.

Surprisingly, the way you cook your food has a major effect on the amount of nutrients it contains.

This article explores how various cooking methods affect the nutrient content of foods.

Almost all foods consumed need some form of cooking and processing for making it fit for consumption. The nutrients we receive from the meals depend largely on the extent of cooking practices used. Some of the nutrients are lost during cooking. Cooking also has its benefits like:

• It increases palatability
• It makes food easily digestible
• Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed, thus safe.
• The appearance of food improves

Food prepared in large quantities in institutional kitchens or food processing plants is more prone to loss of nutrients if adequate care is not taken to preserve its nutrients. In the initial stages of cooking the soaking of food in water leads to leaching of vitamins and minerals. These losses can be minimized by washing the uncut fruits and vegetables and not soaking them in water.

Nutrient content is often altered during cooking

Cooking food improves digestion and increases the absorption of many nutrients .

For example, the protein in cooked eggs is 180% more digestible than that of raw eggs .

However, some cooking methods reduce several key nutrients.

The following nutrients are often reduced during cooking:

• water-soluble vitamins: vitamin C and the B vitamins — thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), folic acid (B9), and cobalamin (B12)
• fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K
• minerals: primarily potassium, magnesium, sodium, and calcium

Summary

Although cooking improves digestion and the absorption of many nutrients, it may reduce levels of some vitamins and minerals.

Boiling, simmering, and poaching

Boiling, simmering, and poaching are similar methods of water-based cooking.

These techniques differ by water temperature:

• poaching: less than 180°F (82°C)
• simmering: 185–200°F (85–93°C)
• boiling: 212°F (100°C)

Vegetables are generally a great source of vitamin C, but a large amount of it is lost when they’re cooked in water.

In fact, boiling reduces vitamin C content more than any other cooking method. Broccoli, spinach, and lettuce may lose up to 50% or more of their vitamin C when boiled.

Because vitamin C is water-soluble and sensitive to heat, it can leach out of vegetables when they’re immersed in hot water.

B vitamins are similarly heat sensitive. Up to 60% of thiamine, niacin, and other B vitamins may be lost when meat is simmered and its juices run off.

However, when the liquid containing these juices is consumed, 100% of the minerals and 70–90% of B vitamins are retained

On the other hand, boiling fish was shown to preserve omega-3 fatty acid content significantly more than frying or microwaving

Summary

While water-based cooking methods cause the greatest losses of water-soluble vitamins, they have very little effect on omega-3 fats.

Grilling and broiling

Grilling and broiling are similar methods of cooking with dry heat.

When grilling, the heat source comes from below, but when broiling, it comes from above.

Grilling is one of the most popular cooking methods because of the great flavor it gives food.

However, up to 40% of B vitamins and minerals may be lost during grilling or broiling when the nutrient-rich juice drips from the meat .

There are also concerns about polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are potentially cancer-causing substances that form when meat is grilled and fat drips onto a hot surface.

However, researchers have found that PAHs can be decreased by 41–89% if drippings are removed and smoke is minimized

Summary

Grilling and broiling provide great flavor but also reduce levels of B vitamins. Also, grilling generates potentially cancer-causing substances.

Microwaving

Microwaving is an easy, convenient, and safe method of cooking.

Short cooking times and reduced exposure to heat preserve the nutrients in microwaved food

In fact, studies have found that microwaving is the best method for retaining the antioxidant activity of garlic and mushrooms

Meanwhile, about 20–30% of the vitamin C in green vegetables is lost during microwaving, which is less than most cooking methods

Summary

Microwaving is a safe cooking method that preserves most nutrients due to short cooking times.

Roasting and baking

Roasting and baking refer to cooking food in an oven with dry heat.

Although these terms are somewhat interchangeable, roasting is typically used for meat while baking is used for bread, muffins, cake, and similar foods.

Most vitamin losses are minimal with this cooking method, including vitamin C.

However, due to long cooking times at high temperatures, the B vitamins in roasted meat may decline by as much as 40% .

Summary

Roasting or baking does not have a significant effect on most vitamins and minerals, except for B vitamins.

Sautéing and stir-frying

With sautéing and stir-frying, food is cooked in a saucepan over medium to high heat in a small amount of oil or butter.

These techniques are very similar, but with stir-frying, the food is stirred often, the temperature is higher, and the cooking time is shorter.

In general, this is a healthy way to prepare food.

Cooking for a short time without water prevents the loss of B vitamins, and the addition of fat improves the absorption of plant compounds and antioxidants.

One study found that the absorption of beta carotene was 6.5 times greater in stir-fried carrots than in raw ones .

In another study, blood lycopene levels increased 80% more when people consumed tomatoes sautéed in olive oil rather than without it .

On the other hand, stir-frying has been shown to significantly reduce the amount of vitamin C in broccoli and red cabbage .

Summary

Sautéing and stir-frying improve the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and some plant compounds, but they decrease the amount of vitamin C in vegetables.

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Frying

Frying involves cooking food in a large amount of fat — usually oil — at a high temperature. The food is often coated with batter or bread crumbs.

It’s a popular way of preparing food because the skin or coating maintains a seal, which ensures that the inside remains moist and cooks evenly.

The fat used for frying also makes the food taste very good.

However, not all foods are appropriate for frying.

Fatty fish are the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which have many health benefits. However, these fats are very delicate and prone to damage at high temperatures.

For example, frying tuna has been shown to degrade its omega-3 content by up to 70–85%, while baking causes only minimal losses

In contrast, frying preserves vitamin C and B vitamins, and it may also increase the amount of fiber in potatoes by converting their starch into resistant starch.

When oil is heated to a high temperature for a long period of time, toxic substances called aldehydes are formed. Aldehydes have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other diseases .

The type of oil, temperature, and length of cooking time affect the amount of aldehydes produced. Reheating oil also increases aldehyde formation.

If you’re going to fry food, don’t overcook it, and use one of the healthiest oils for frying.

Summary

Frying makes food taste delicious, and it can provide some benefits when healthy oils are used. It’s best to avoid frying fatty fish and minimize the frying time of other foods.

Steaming

Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins, which are sensitive to heat and water

Researchers have found that steaming broccoli, spinach, and lettuce reduces their vitamin C content by only 9–15%

The downside is that steamed vegetables may taste bland. However, this is easy to remedy by adding some seasoning and oil or butter after cooking.

Summary

Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins.

Tips to maximize nutrient retention during cooking

Here are 10 tips to reduce nutrient loss while cooking:

1. Use as little water as possible when poaching or boiling.
2. Consume the liquid left in the pan after cooking vegetables.
3. Add back juices from meat that drip into the pan.
4. Don’t peel vegetables until after cooking them. Better yet, don’t peel at all to maximize their fiber and nutrient density.
5. Cook vegetables in smaller amounts of water to reduce the loss of vitamin C and B vitamins.
6. Try to eat any cooked vegetables within a day or two, as their vitamin C content may continue to decline when the cooked food is exposed to air.
7. Cut food after — rather than before — cooking, if possible. When food is cooked whole, less of it is exposed to heat and water.
8. Cook vegetables for only a few minutes whenever possible.
9. When cooking meat, poultry, and fish, use the shortest cooking time needed for safe consumption.
10. Don’t use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps maintain color, vitamin C will be lost in the alkaline environment produced by baking soda.

Summary

There are many ways to preserve the nutrient content of foods without sacrificing taste or other qualities.

The bottom line

It’s important to select the right cooking method to maximize the nutritional quality of your meal.

However, there is no perfect cooking method that retains all nutrients.

In general, cooking for shorter periods at lower temperatures with minimal water will produce the best results.

Don’t let the nutrients in your food go down the drain.

Various effects seen on the nutrients are primarily because of the HEAT, ALKALI, and ACID.

Effect Of Heat On The Nutrients

• In carbohydrates, cooking has a beneficial effect as it leads to gelatinization of starch and caramelization of sugar which gives color and flavor to food.
• Proteins get denatured thus access to enzymes and digestibility increases.
• Moist heating of pulses improves protein quality.
• Chemical reactions take place when oil is continuously heated. Reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of the oil. Oil becomes dark and foamy, such an oil should not be used for consumption
• Blanching inactivates certain enzymes that lead to undesirable browning.
• Heat labile vitamins are lost.
• Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during fat frying if a product is not coated properly.

Effect Of Alkali On Nutrients

• Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegetables. Pinch of sodium bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green color.
• B complex vitamins and Vit.C are destroyed in an alkaline medium.
• Excessive cooking in the alkaline medium not only destroys vitamins but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the product.

Effect Of Acid On Nutrients

• An acidic medium while cooking helps to preserve water-soluble vitamins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and vegetables.
• Vegetables and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium as acids precipitate pectin and harden vegetables.
• Vegetables lose their color, so to overcome this allow the volatile acids to escape first, hence greens should be cooked without lid for the first few minutes.

Guidelines For Preserving Nutrients

• Wash vegetables, fruits and rice in just a sufficient amount of water. It is advisable either to cook in a minimum amount of water or to use the cooking water in soups and gravies.
• Cutting vegetables to small pieces and exposing them to air before cooking leads to loss of vitamins particularly vitamin C. Thus it is advisable to cut large pieces and cook for a shorter period.
• The 3 R’s of cooking to conserve nutrients are:

1. Reduce the amount of water
2. Reduce the length of the cooking period
3. Reduce the amount of surface area exposed

• Oil heated repeatedly should not be consumed as repeated heating during frying leads to the production of toxic substances due to pre-oxidation and rancidity.
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Food processing is the alteration of foods from the state in which they are harvested or raised to better preserve them and feed consumers,Processing began in prehistoric times. As agriculture and animal husbandry spread, it was essential to preserve foods to avoid losses because of spoilage and to survive during times of scarcity. Food processing was probably the first “technology” that was sufficiently successful such that it led to a segregation of societies into discrete artisan industries. As such, food processing as an industry was likely the stepping stone to urbanization.

Eight types of supplementary foods based on popped cereals (wheat, ragi, bajra and sorghum) blended with legumes (soy and bengalgram) and fortified with essential vitamins and minerals were developed on a pilot plant scale. Four of the supplements were prepared with cereals, soy flour (SF) and bengal gram (BG) dhal and the other four were prepared with combinations of cereals and SF. These blends were mixed with jaggery (obtained by boiling juice out of sugarcane) syrup and pressed into compact form. One hundred gram portions of these foods provided 370 ± 20 kilocalories and 11 ± 1 g protein. Moisture, crude protein, total carbohydrates, total lipids, ash, dietary fiber and energy contents, of all the developed supplements were within the ranges prescribed by the Indian Standards Institute for processed weaning foods and could satisfactorily meet one-third of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of these nutrients per day for preschool children. Organoleptic evaluation and feeding trials revealed that the foods were well accepted by rural mothers and children.

Until recently, much preservation and processing of food were done at home; only within the past 100 y has large-scale food processing become an industrial process. The basic steps involved in preservation and processing and their consequences on food quality, nourishment, and safety are largely the same, however, regardless of whether food is processed at home or commercially.

Definitions of processed foods

Perhaps some of the confusion surrounding processed foods can be clarified by stating some simple operational definitions at the outset. To process food means to use a series of mechanical or chemical operations to change or preserve it. An Institute of Food Technologists scientific review (1) described processing as “one or more of a range of operations, including washing, grinding, mixing, cooling, storing, heating, freezing, filtering, fermenting, extracting, extruding, centrifuging, frying, drying, concentrating, pressurizing, irradiating, microwaving, and packaging.” Many staples in the diet, such as bread, cheese, and wine, bear little or no resemblance to their starting commodities and are highly processed and prepared but are often not regarded as “processed” by consumers.

Categories of processed foods as proposed by the International Food Information Council¹

Type of food	Examples
Foods that require processing or production (also called “minimally processed”)	Washed and packaged fruit and vegetables; bagged salads; roasted and ground nuts and coffee beans
Foods processed to help preserve and enhance nutrients and freshness of foods at their peak	Canned tuna, beans, and tomatoes; frozen fruits and vegetables; puréed and jarred baby foods
Foods that combine ingredients such as sweeteners, spices, oils, flavors, colors, and preservatives to improve safety and taste and/or add visual appeal; does not include “ready-to-eat” foods listed below	Some packaged foods, such as instant potato mix, rice, cake mix, jarred tomato sauce, spice mixes, dressings and sauces, and gelatin
“Ready-to-eat” foods needing minimal or no preparation	Breakfast cereal, flavored oatmeal, crackers, jams and jellies, nut butters, ice cream, yogurt, garlic bread, granola bars, cookies, fruit chews, rotisserie chicken, luncheon meats, honey-baked ham, cheese spreads, fruit drinks, and carbonated beverages
Foods packaged to stay fresh and save time	Prepared deli foods and frozen meats, entrées, pot pies, and pizzas

ACTIONS NEEDED TO ENHANCE THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROCESSED FOOD TO NUTRITIONAL SECURITY AND FOOD SECURITY

Nutritional security ensures an adequate, balanced, varied, and wholesome diet. Food security, or having enough food and a secure, sustainable, and affordable food supply, is essential for all countries and individuals.

factors such as population growth, food insecurity, and the globalization of the food supply will affect the demand for food in the United States and abroad and food security over the next 25–50 y.

To enhance the contribution of processed foods in helping to address these challenges, several actions are described below.-

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Enhance nutritional benefits and decrease undesirable attributes of food processing

Many years ago, Bender suggested some rules of thumb for producing nutritionally favorable processed foods, such as convenience in preparing a complete meal, ease in conforming to human needs, an emphasis on foods with nutrients that are likely to fall short in diets, and a de-emphasis on those with constituents that are in excess. Food processing techniques such as enrichment and fortification can add essential nutrients that might otherwise be in short supply and can alter food profiles to decrease components that may be overconsumed. Some examples are iron-fortified infant cereals, the fortification of milk with vitamin D, the fortification of margarine with vitamin A, processed foods prepared with iodized salt enrichment of cereals with B vitamins and iron, and the recent fortification of wheat flour with folic acid.

Diminish perceived and real disadvantages of food processing

Unfamiliar processes

One disadvantage of commercial food processing techniques is that they are poorly understood. Commercial food processing involves techniques that are difficult for the general public to grasp and that are out of their control, thus introducing a lack of transparency and generating suspicion and concerns about safety in some individuals.

In addition, concerns about the nutritional content and other aspects of the production of processed foods, such as sustainability and cost, have led to criticisms of processed foods as “ultra-processed” and not compatible with good nutrition. However, the type and extent of processing do not necessarily correlate with the nutritional content of the product. For example, high-temperature, short-term pasteurization and ultrahigh temperature sterilization cause less loss of nutrients than do older methods such as pasteurization and sterilization.

Food safety

Another concern about food processing involves fears about food safety. In the 19th century, during the transition from farms and subsistence agriculture with home-processed food to urbanization and a commercially processed food supply that was ineffectively regulated, adulteration and other abuses in the manufacture of processed foods were common.

It is a constant and dynamic challenge to keep pace with the changing food supply and to continue to maintain a safe food supply. Appropriate processing and preparation techniques for foods and a strong regulatory program are 2 essential means of safeguarding health in the face of these safety challenges.

Nutritional value

Many Americans are concerned about nutrition, but they may not know how to prepare foods to maintain their nutritional value. Some also have nutritional concerns about food processing that may lead to over- or undercooking of food at home. Processing techniques that involve milling; separating; exposures to air, light, heat, or radiation; changes in acidity or osmolality; or other techniques during freezing, drying, canning, or vacuum packing can and often do alter the content of nutrients and other nonessential bioactive food constituents.

Cost

The actual cost of food is a subject on which a great deal of consumer ignorance exists. Relative to virtually all consumer product categories, food costs have increased the least over the past half century . Nevertheless, consumers remain highly sensitive to food prices, and price approaches taste as a top concern when purchasing foods and beverages.

Lack of fit with food preferences or other values

Some consumers have ethical or cultural beliefs or philosophical concerns about processed foods. They hold values or preferences that cause them to object to various aspects of processing (eg, food colors, food additives, bioengineered foods, irradiated foods, foods processed in unsustainable ways, or foods with high carbon footprints). These values are personal views that nutrition and food scientists must respect and, when possible, provide alternatives in the marketplace that cater to them. Better communication with consumers is needed to modify values and choices that are motivated more by perceptions of a food being unhealthy or perceptions of risk or lack of safety.

Enhance understanding of the role of food processing in meeting nutritional needs as well as societal and consumer wants

Nutrition scientists, food scientists, food manufacturers, and health professionals are having difficulty communicating among themselves and to consumers about the role of processed foods in nutrition and health. In part this is because of the different definitions used by these groups, the different perceptions of these groups, and the difference in the training they have received. For example, an individual who desires a diet that is low in pesticides, hormones, and additives may describe it as one that does not contain “processed” foods, but a food scientist/technologist interprets this request as a desire to omit all foods that are heat-treated, frozen, or otherwise transformed during manufacture. Thus, the two will misunderstand each other and strive for different outcomes. A nutritionist is interested in processed foods from yet a third viewpoint, ie, the nutrient contribution to the diet. Nutrition professionals can play a role in assessing the contributions of processed foods to the intake of both nutrients to encourage and constituents to limit.

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Food hygiene constitutes a basic necessity of Good Manufacturing/Agricultural Practices and the development of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), as well being as a component of all GFSI-benchmarked food safety standards. Government, industry and consumers all play a role in safe sanitation and food hygiene practices.

Studies have shown that an appreciable percentage of foodborne illness cases can be attributed to poor sanitation and food hygiene, including poor personal hygiene and contamination of equipment and/or environments. Examples of food recalls related to sanitation issues include the contamination and subsequent recall of deli meats in Canada in 2008, when cells of Listeria monocytogenes were transferred to the product after surviving in equipment niches, where they were protected from sanitation procedures. The company was very public about the changes made to the sanitation program since then, including regular testing to monitor the success of the strategy in reducing environmental contamination.

Maintaining safety and quality is essential in the entire chain of food products ranging from primary food production at the level of farmers, primary food processing at the farm, dairy, abattoir, and grain mills, etc. Secondary food processing level such as canning, freezing, drying, and brewing, food distributors at the national and international level of import/export, food
retailing and catering and also domestic food preparation.

Safe food is food which is free of contaminants and will not cause illness or harm. Our food is devitalized, colored, filled with chemicals, drugs and synthetic ingredients, polluted by agricultural and environmental chemicals and are grown on impoverished land puffed up by chemical fertilizers. Moreover, the chemicals used are known to cause adverse effects in
humans and animals. Therefore all individuals involved in food handling should be trained in handling food safety. It is necessary to create and maintain hygienic and sanitary conditions to safeguard the food.

This involves:

Protecting food from risk of contamination, i.e. preventing objectionable matter getting into food, including harmful bacteria, poisons, and foreign bodies.
• Preventing any bacteria present multiplying to a level which would result in the illness of consumers or the early spoilage of food.
• Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking, processing or irradiation; and
• Discarding unfit or contaminated food.

Sanitary practices and hygienic conditions are becoming more and more important because food is being processed, prepared and sold in larger volumes than before. Some microorganism causes food spoilage and foodborne diseases, but others are beneficial n food processing and preparation. Sanitation can reduce the growth of microorganisms on equipment and dirt on
the food. This can reduce contamination of food by microorganisms that cause foodborne diseases and food spoilage. Sanitary principles also apply to waste disposal and can help reduce pollution and improve ecological balance.

Personal Hygiene

In catering, hygiene and sanitation play a vital role in promoting and protecting the health and wellbeing of hundreds of people. The foods, materials, and equipment are subject to constant handling by people at every stage of food production and service. Thus it is the duty of every caterer to ensure that personal hygiene becomes a habit of all food handlers. All food handlers reporting for duty must be fresh, well-groomed and clean.

Few points for personal hygiene that food handlers must follow:

1. Bathing: Workers must bathe daily (even twice) as body odor is offensive and skin is the main breeding ground for bacteria. Head bath again twice a week.
2. Hair: Wearing clean headgear to be encouraged to prevent hair from falling in food, prevent from touching their scalp and also prevent long hair from getting entangled in machinery.
3. Teeth and Mouth: Teeth to be brushed thoroughly twice a day with a moderately hard brush – first thing in the morning and after dinner.
4. Hands: Hands are in direct contact with food, so can transfer bacteria and cause illness. To prevent this, hands should be washed:
• Before beginning work and after a break.
• After eating or smoking.
• After using the toilet.
• After touching infected or unsanitary areas of the body or combing hair or using mobile phones.
• After using a handkerchief, sneezing or coughing into the hands.
• After handling raw foods, especially meat, fish and poultry.
• After handling waste food or refuse.
• Whenever they are dirty.

Hands should be washed thoroughly with plenty of soap and water – preferably rinsed in running water or water stored in clean covered containers with a tap fixed on them. If soap cakes are used, they should be kept dry. Liquid soap is more hygienic and economical to use. Hands must be thoroughly dried by using a roller towel, disposable paper, towels or a hot air dryer. Exposed wounds, cuts, burns can harbor bacteria. They need to be covered with a waterproof dressing. Pus formation, inflammation indicates infection. Such people should not be allowed to handle food for some time.

5. Finger Nails: Nails should be trimmed as they harbor germs and can also chip and fall in

the food and kept clean. Nail polish used should not be allowed.
6. Feet and Footwear: Feet should be washed and kept clean. Always wear socks with shoes to keep away dirt and perspiration. Shoes should form a part of the uniform, sturdy, well-fitting, and well-polished, with a low heel.

7. Jewelry: Food handlers should not wear any jewelry as they tend to harbor bacteria and small parts may sometimes drop food into food.
8. Reporting Illness: If the food handler feels unwell he/she should report it to his or her supervisor. Such food handlers should be excluded from work until medical clearance is taken.

Habits to be avoided

• Washing hands in sinks used for food preparation. In case there is no separate

•All catering staff should need to be periodically put through a medical check-up to ensure that
they are not suffering from worms, T.B, skin or other infections. People with colds, sore throat,
boils, and diarrhea should not handle food.

Food Safety in Kitchens

Food Hygiene

Food hygiene may be defined as the sanitary science which aims to produce food which is safe
for the consumer and is of good keeping quality.

1. Procurement of raw material: Freshness, quality, quality of packaged food products
(e.g. Appearance, temperature, packaging and pack seals are intact).
2. Storage of Raw Materials: Storage areas (temperatures, products should be completely covered, FIFO ( first in first out) & FEFO (first expired first Out), 6” above the ground, veg & non-veg to be kept separate, all products with the label of expiry date, delivery date,cold storage at 5°C or below for chillers and -18°C for freezers.
3. Preparation of raw material :
a. General – Use of only potable water from safe source, clean work area, equipment,
product cover after preparation / cooking.
b. Sieving/sorting or cleaning – use potable water, uncooked, ready to eat – fruits and vegetables are disinfected with 50ppm chlorinated water before cutting, peeling or serving. Do not reuse this chlorinated water for other purposes.
4. Cooking/Processing: Temp. of cooked food should reach 70°C, cooking in hygienic area, was basin in the kitchen (e.g. In a dhaba or kiosk), then put a small tap outside and segregate it.
Tasting food with fingers or with the same spoon: is the most unhygienic thing to do. Leaving cooked food uncovered for a long time. Blowing air from the mouth over the hot food. separate equipments and utensils for vegetarian and non-vegetarian product, potable water, frying oil/fat should be changed immediately when there is colour change, foiling, syrupiness scum formation, ice should be prepared from potable water.

5. Storage of cooked food: Cooked food should be stored covered and at appropriate temperature, cold foods at 5°C or below hot foods at 60°C or above. Veg & non- veg products should be stored separately and properly labeled with day and date of
preparation, salads, garnishes or ready to eat foods are immediately stored in clean covered containers and refrigerated.
6. Preparation of cooked food before serving: Cold foods are served cold, hot foods hot (up to 70°C), and cooked food is not left at room temp. For more than 2 hours, surplus food is discarded and not mixed up with freshly prepared food; transported cooked food is consumed/used within 4 hours of its arrival.
7. Serving of Cooked Food: Use clean & intact utensils/ one time use disposables, clean and non-toxic material is used for packing food. Printed paper is not used for wrapping. All tables and food serving counters are to be kept clean, use spatula/spoon/hand gloves etc. for serving and not with bare hands.
8. Storage of surplus food: surplus food is consumed before expiry/use by date, surplus foods are stored in the refrigerator, surplus food is discarded, perishable products are consumed immediately. Canned products once opened should be transferred in the suitable covered containers and kept refrigerated.
9. Quality of water & ice: Municipal water supply should be used as it is safely treated in the water plant, ice should be handled hygienically with clean scoops.
10. Utensils & Equipment: Equipment cleaning and hygiene of establishment, surrounding/ environment, good lighting facility, pest control, insect electrocuting device (IED) on the entrance of Kitchens, Air screens, maintenance & cleaning. Last but not the least  personal hygiene.

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Workplace Sanitation

Maintaining a clean work environment is critical in preventing foodborne illness. Bacteria can grow on unsanitary surfaces and then contaminate food. Just because a work surface looks clean does not mean that it is sanitary. Always ensure that you clean and sanitize a work area before starting to prepare food.

Cleaning Procedures and Schedules

Cleaning with soap and other detergents is just one step of the cleaning procedure. It is also necessary to sanitize. Cleaning will remove any dirt or grease, but will not necessarily kill any bacteria or other pathogens. Only a sanitizer will kill bacteria and ensure the area is safe for food preparation. Leading sanitizers used in the food service industry are chlorine solutions (bleach), quaternary solutions (quats), and iodine. Use these materials according to the manufacturer’s instructions that accompany the product and that are found on the material safety data sheet (MSDS) using the appropriate personal protective equipment.

A sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures that all surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of transferring bacteria or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean equipment such as cutting boards or tools. A sanitation plan has two components:

1. A list of cleaning and sanitizing agents or supplies with instructions on their safe use and storage
2. A cleaning schedule, outlining how each item needs to be cleaned, who is responsible, and how frequently it happens

Figure 5 shows a sample daily and weekly cleaning schedule for a restaurant.

Figure 5. Sample Cleaning Schedule

Item	Frequency	Method	Responsibility	Supervisor initial
Upright mixer	Prior to use if mixer not used in previous 2 hours Immediately after use when finished task	Lock out machine (unplug) and remove attachments and bowl. Send through dishwasher. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water). Allow to air dry prior to reassembly and next use.	Pastry cooks	________
Meat slicer	Prior to use if slicer not used in previous 2 hours Immediately after use when finished task	Lock out machine (unplug) and set slicer to zero. Remove blade guard. Send through dishwasher. Carefully wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent. Carefully wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water). Allow air dry prior to reassembly and next use.	Garde manger	________

Item	Frequency	Method	Responsibility	Supervisor initial
Dry storage	Monday after dinner service	Remove food from shelves one shelf at a time. Store rolling rack in dry storage while cleaning shelf in place. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water). Allow to air dry prior to replacing food on shelves.	Grill cook	________
Reach-in freezer	Tuesday after dinner dervice	Remove food from shelves one shelf at a time. Store rolling rack in cooler while cleaning shelf in place. Wash down all surfaces with a clean cloth immersed in clean warm water and detergent. Wipe down all surfaces with a second clean cloth immersed in sanitizing solution (100 ppm chlorine or 28 mL bleach per 4.5 L water). Allow to air dry prior to replacing food on shelves.	Garde manger	________

Dishwashing Procedures

Effective dishwashing ensures that all equipment is sanitary and ready for use when required. Using soiled or dirty china is not only dangerous, but it will tell customers that the operator as little or no regard for customer safety. Table 2.5 shows the proper procedures for both manual and automatic dishwashing.

Before washing, scrape dishes and pre-soak any items with hard to remove residue. Then follow the procedure in Table 5, depending on whether you are using a high- or low-temperature dishwasher or you are washing dishes manually.

Step	Manual	High-temperature dishwasher	Low-temperature dishwasher or glass washer
Wash	Use a commercial detergent and 45°C (113°F) water.	Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F).	Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F).
Rinse	Rinse in clean hot water.	Hot rinse cycle.	Warm or cold rinse cycle with sanitizer.
Sanitize	Sanitize for 2 minutes with an approved sanitizing solution (50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine).	Rinse cycle must reach at least 82°C (180°F) for at least 10 seconds.	Final rinse must have concentration of 50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine.
Dry	Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage. Never towel dry.	Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage Never towel dry.	Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage Never towel dry.

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Routine Equipment Maintenance

Most kitchen equipment is intended to be disassembled for cleaning. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and training provided by your employer or instructor on how to do this safely. Some equipment is intended to be cleaned in place. This should be identified in your sanitation plan and cleaning schedule.

All equipment must be routinely cleaned and inspected. Older equipment may have nooks and crannies where dirt and bacteria can hide, which can be difficult to clean effectively. Proper cleaning procedures must be established and followed at all times with regular review to ensure that procedures are working. If equipment is replaced or cleaning materials change, the process may have to be adjusted. If you notice any safety concerns with the equipment while cleaning it, such as a frayed cord, missing guard or loose parts, let your supervisor know immediately.

Importance of Personal Hygiene

It is imperative for safe food-handling outcomes for all workers to be familiar with standard sanitation and hygiene practices. Figure 6 shows the cycles of transmission of micro-organisms. One of the basic principles is to break the cycle by avoiding cross-contamination, which can be achieved by ensuring personal hygiene practices are followed.

Proper personal hygiene is critical in any food service premise. Personal hygiene includes:

• Showering and bathing regularly
• Keeping hair clean hair and covered or tied back
• Keeping clean clothing and footwear that is used only at work
• Handwashing regularly
• Using clean utensils for tasting food
• Using separate cloths for cleaning and wiping plates

Handwashing

Proper and regular handwashing is a critical part of any food safety system. You must always wash your hands after:

• Sneezing, coughing, or touching your mouth or nose
• Using the bathroom
• Smoking or using toothpicks
• Handling raw foods
• Cleaning and wiping tables, food preparation surfaces, or equipment
• Handling soiled objects, garbage, or money

The steps for proper handwashing are as follows:

1. Wet hands with warm water.
2. Apply liquid soap and lather for at least 20 to 30 seconds.
3. Scrub backs of hands, wrists, all fingers, and under nails.
4. Rinse under running water, pointing down toward the drain.
5. Dry with a paper towel.
6. Turn off taps and open bathroom door using the paper towel

Safety in Storage of Food

Foods should be stored in the right way so that they do not become hazardous to health and their quality does not deteriorate.

There are two kinds of storages:

1. Dry Storage Rooms: (For Dry Ingredients)

Meant for non-perishable foods like cereals, pulses, legumes, sugars, spices, fats and oils, packaged and canned foods; and for semi – perishables like under ripe fruits and vegetables, potatoes and onions, bread and eggs. Temperature conditions – 20-25°C (room temperature). If the outside temperatures are too high, then the store temperatures have to be brought down by air cooling the store. The storage should be dry cool well ventilated and free from infestation to maintain quality of food. Good ventilation will counteract the effort of humidity and high temperature.
• While most non-perishables can be stored together in a storeroom, some semi – perishables require separate ventilated storage facilities, slightly cooler than the rest of the store.
• Foods which need to be held only for 2-3 days require a temperature of 10- 15.5°C. Like breads, bakery products.
• If space allows, fats and oils should be stored away from the rest of the food.
• As far as possible, the non-perishables should be stored in air tight covered bins, cartons, polythene packs and cans.
• Transparent glass jars may be used for pulses and spices.
• Eggs may be kept in cardboard trays and cartons and consumed in 2-3 days.
• Cleaning supplies which include detergents, brushes, mops, and antiseptic solutions should be stored in separate section.
• Trash is always stored away from the store.

In a small food joint, like coffee shops or kiosks, the dry store may have to provide space for storing all types of commodities. In such a case, care should be taken to ensure that food, equipment and detergents are placed in separate cabinets or
shelves (detergent may be added instead of salt)

2. Low Temperature Storage:

The principle is to maintain temperatures at levels which will inhibit the growth of micro-organisms, and thus preserving food. Perishable foods have a high content of moisture, providing suitable humidity for microbes to thrive and for spoilage to occur.
They are two types:

a. Refrigerated Storage Temperatures between 0 – 10 deg. Celsius.

This is necessary for perishables like milk and milk products, leftovers of cooked food,
fermented batters, dough’s, green vegetables and fruits.

All foods must be kept covered.

b. Freezer Storage
Freezer storage may be in the form of a free standing cabinet or a separate cabinet in the refrigerator where the temperature is maintained from -20 to 0 deg. Celsius.

All meat/fish/poultry, frozen veggies, ice-creams etc. require frozen conditions.

For successful freezing, it is necessary to blanch foods, cool quickly to freezing temperatures and pack in air tight containers and packets.

A food removed from the freezer, thawed for use, must never be put back in the freezer as this increases the microbes manifold and make the food unsafe.

Sanitation and Safety of Stores

•Dry food stores should be fly proofed. Wire meshing of doors and windows to be done. Use of insect electrocuting device at the entry.
• Walls to be treated with insecticide sprays which leave insecticidal films on walls – remain effective for 2 – 3 months.
• While whitewashing D.D.T or Lindane may be mixed with the white was to make the surface insect repellent.
• All stores to be guarded against pests like rodents, cockroaches, flies to safeguard both staff and consumers against infested and contaminated food. The store supervisor should:
a. Maintain cleanliness.
b. Use poisoned baits or traps for rats (Zinc Phosphide, Warfarin, are effective rat poisons)
c. All openings to be sealed – open drains, gaps in doors, around water pipes.
d. Cockroaches hide in dark nooks and corners. All cracks and crevices to be sealed.
e. Personal Hygiene should be maintained by the staff.

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Intelligence has been a controversial topic throughout psychology’s history. Despite the substantial interest in the subject, there is still considerable disagreement about what components makeup intelligence. In addition to questions of exactly how to define intelligence, the debate continues today about whether accurate measurements are even possible.

At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some different definitions of intelligence. While these definitions can vary considerably from one theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence is the ability to:

• Learn from experience:The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component of intelligence.
• Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
• Solve problems:People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.1

Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most heavily researched, it is also one of the topics that generate the greatest controversy.

While psychologists often disagree about the definition and causes of intelligence, research on intelligence plays a significant role in many areas. These areas include decisions regarding how much funding should be given to educational programs, the use of testing to screen job applicants, and the use of testing to identify children who need additional academic help.

Brief History of Intelligence

The term “intelligence quotient,” or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by a German psychologist named William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess.2

Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to developing many other tests of skill and aptitude. However, it continues to spur debate and controversy over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very way we define intelligence.

Theories of Intelligence

Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence. Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

General Intelligence

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.

People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed.3

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone’s theory focused on seven different primary mental abilities.4

• Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall
• Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
• Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
• Reasoning: The ability to find rules
• Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
• Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
• Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person’s abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:5

• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle objects skillfully
• Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of others
• Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
• Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
• Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
• Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other objects in nature
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
• Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one’s life.”

While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he suggested that some of Gardner’s types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as “successful intelligence,” which involves three different factors:6

• Analytical intelligence:Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems
• Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
• Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

Questions About Intelligence Testing

In order to gain a deeper understanding of intelligence and the tests developed to measure this concept, it’s important to understand the history of intelligence testing, the research that has been conducted, and the findings that have emerged.

Major questions about intelligence and IQ testing still include:

• Are intelligence tests biased?
• Is intelligence a single ability, or does it involve an assortment of multiple skills and abilities?
• Is intelligence inherited, or does the environment play a larger role?
• What do intelligence scores predict, if anything?

To explore these questions, psychologists have conducted a considerable amount of research on the nature, influences, and effects of intelligence.

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Types of Intelligence

After examining the popular competing theories of intelligence, it becomes clear that there are many different forms of this seemingly simple concept.

On one hand, Spearman claims that intelligence is generalizable across many different areas of life, and on the other hand, psychologists such as Thurstone, Gardener, and Sternberg hold that intelligence is like a tree with many different branches, each representing a specific form of intelligence.

To make matters even more interesting, let’s throw a few more types of intelligence into the mix!

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Emotional intelligence is important in our everyday lives, seeing as we experience one emotion or another nearly every second of our lives. You may not associate emotions and intelligence with one another, but in reality, they are very related.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). The four key components of emotional Intelligence are (i) self-awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social awareness, and (iv) relationship management.

In other words, if you are high in emotional intelligence, you can accurately perceive emotions in yourself and others (such as reading facial expressions), use emotions to help facilitate thinking, understand the meaning behind your emotions (why are you feeling this way?), and know how to manage your emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell (1963) first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and further developed the theory with John Horn.

Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations without referencing prior knowledge, but rather through the use of logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required (Cattell, 1963). As you grow older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in the late 20s.

Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired knowledge, such as specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963). As you grow older and accumulate knowledge, crystallized intelligence increases.

The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that interact and work together to produce overall individual intelligence

For example, if you are taking a hard math test, you rely on your crystallized intelligence to process the numbers and meaning of the questions, but you may use fluid intelligence to work through the novel problem and arrive at the correct solution. It is also possible that fluid intelligence can become crystallized intelligence.

The novel solutions you create when relying on fluid intelligence can, over time, develop into crystallized intelligence after they are incorporated into long-term memory.

This illustrates some of the ways in which different forms of intelligence overlap and interact with one another, revealing its dynamic nature.

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Intelligence Testing

Binet-Simon Scale

During the early 1900s, the French government enlisted the help of psychologist Alfred Binet to understand which children were going to be slower learners and thus require more assistance in the classroom (Binet et al., 1912).

As a result, he and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began to develop a specific set of questions that focused on areas such as memory and problem-solving skills.

They tested these questions on groups of students aged three to twelve to help standardize the measure (Binet et al., 1912). Binet realized that some children were able to answer advanced questions that their older peers were able to answer.

As a result, he created the concept of a mental age, or how well an individual performs intellectually relative to the average performance at that age (Cherry, 2020).

Ultimately, Binet finalized the scale, known as the Binet-Simon scale, that became the basis for the intelligence tests still used today.

The Binet-Simon scale of 1905 comprised 30 items designed to measure judgment, comprehension, and reasoning which Binet deemed the key characteristics of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

When the Binet-Simon scale made its way over to the United States, Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman adapted the test for American students, and published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916 (Cherry, 2020).

The Stanford-Binet Scale is a contemporary assessment which measures intelligence according to five features of cognitive ability, including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses are measured.

This test used a single number, referred to as the intelligence quotient (IQ) to indicate an individual’s score.

The average score for the test is 100, and any score from 90 to 109 is considered to be in the average intelligence range. Score from 110 to 119 are considered to be High Average. Superior scores range from 120 to 129 and anything over 130 is considered Very Superior.

To calculate IQ, the student’s mental age is divided by his or her actual (or chronological) age, and this result is multiplied by 100. If your mental age is equal to your chronological age, you will have an IQ of 100, or average. If, however, your mental age is, say, 12, but your chronological age is only 10, you will have an above-average IQ of 120.

WISC and WAIS

Just as theories of intelligence build off one another, intelligence tests do too. After Terman created Stanford-Binet test, American psychologist David Wechsler developed a new tool due to his dissatisfaction with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet test (Cherry, 2020).

Just like Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved many different mental abilities and felt that the Stanford-Binet scale too closely reflected the idea of one general intelligence.

Because of this, Wechsler created the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1955, with the most up-to-date version being the WAIS-IV (Cherry, 2020).

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), developed by David Wechsler, is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in children between the ages of 6 and 16. It is currently in its fourth edition (WISC-V) released in 2014 by Pearson.

Above Image: WISC-IV Sample Test Question

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), is an IQ test designed to measure cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

The latest version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) was standardized on 2,200 healthy people between the ages of 16 and 90 years (Brooks et al., 2011).

The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages in order to compute the average score on the test at each age level

The overall IQ score combines the test takers’ performance in all four categories (Cherry, 2020). And rather than calculating this number based on mental and chronological age, the WAIS compares the individual’s score to the average score at that level, as calculated by the standardization process.

The Flynn Effect

It is important to regularly standardize an intelligence test because the overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time.

This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect (named after its discoverer, New Zealand researcher James Flynn) which refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide increase from decade to decade (Flynn, 1984).

Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests

Other tests, such as aptitude and achievement tests, are designed to measure intellectual capability. Achievement tests measure what content a student has already learned (such as a unit test in history or a final math exam), whereas an aptitude test measures a student’s potential or ability to learn (Anastasi, 1984).

Although this may sound similar to an IQ test, aptitude tests typically measure abilities in very specific areas.

Extremes of Intelligence

IQ scores are generally normally distributed (Moore et al., 2013). That is, roughly 95% of the population has IQ scores between 70 and 130. But what about the other 5%? 

Individuals who fall outside this range represent the extremes of intelligence. 

Those who have an IQ above 130 are considered to be gifted (Lally & French, 2018), such as Christopher Langan, an American horse rancher, who has an IQ score around 200 (Gladwell, 2008).

Those individuals who have scores below 70 do so because of an intellectual disability, marked by substantial developmental delays, including motor, cognitive, and speech delays (De Light, 2012). 

Some of the time, these disabilities are the product of genetic mutations. 

Down syndrome, for example, resulting from extra genetic material from or a complete extra copy of the 21st chromosome, is a common genetic cause of an intellectual disability (Breslin, 2014). As such, many individuals with down syndrome have below average IQ scores (Breslin, 2014). 

Savant syndrome is another example of an extreme of intelligence. Despite having significant mental disabilities, these individuals demonstrate certain abilities in some fields that are far above average, such as incredible memorization, rapid mathematical or calendar calculation ability, or advanced musical talent (Treffert, 2009).

The fact that these individuals who may be lacking in certain areas such as social interaction and communication make up for it in other remarkable areas, further illustrates the complexity of intelligence and what this concept means today, as well as how we must consider all individuals when determining how to perceive, measure, and recognize intelligence in our society.

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Intelligence Today

Today, intelligence is generally understood as the ability to understand and adapt to the environment by using inherited abilities and learned knowledge. 

;Many new intelligence tests have arisen, such as the University of California Matrix Reasoning Task (Pahor et al., 2019), that can be taken online and in very little time, and new methods of scoring these tests have been developed too (Sansone et al., 2014). 

Admission into university and graduate schools rely on specific aptitude and achievement tests, such as the SAT, ACT, and the LSAT – these tests have become a huge part of our lives.

Humans are incredibly intelligent beings and we rely on our intellectual abilities every day. Although intelligence can be defined and measured in countless ways, our overall intelligence as a species makes us incredibly unique and has allowed us to thrive for generations on end.

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Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The other is understanding how the various parts of a person come together as a whole.

Types: A, B, C, and D

Each person is a unique combination of four personality types. Over the centuries, these basic categories have gone by several names and designations, but for our purposes, they are known as the director, the socializer, the thinker, and the supporter. As shorthand, though, we refer to those personality types as A, B, C, and D, respectively. Learning how to identify people by personality type can bring a higher level of understanding to interpersonal relationships and team building, especially for employers looking for ways to improve employee hiring and retention.

What is a Type A personality?

A Type A personality likes to be in charge and be in control of their environment and their lives. They’re normally not very detail-oriented, choosing to delegate details to others. They’re usually very goal-oriented and practical in their solutions. And arriving at their solutions and goals will entail a no-nonsense, bottom-line approach.

What are other names for the Type A personality?

Personality Tests & Approaches	Type A Personality Name
The Hire Success® System	Director
Hippocrates	Choleric (bodily humor: yellow bile)
Plato	Guardian
Jung	Sensor
DISC	D; Direct/Controlling
Insight	Blue
Myers-Briggs	ENFJ, ENFP, INFJ, INFP
Enneagram	Adventurer/Achiever
PSI	Controller
Biblical character	Paul
Cartoon/comic characters	Lucy (from Peanuts) / Rabbit (from Winnie the Pooh)

What are Type A personality strengths?

• Embraces change
• Take-charge
• Fast-paced
• Entrepreneurial
• Direct management style
• Ambitious
• Works well independently
• Passionate
• Demands maximum freedom
• Dominant
• Good administrative skills
• Highly competitive
• Good delegation skills
• Multitasking

What are Type A personality weaknesses?

• Stubborn
• Workaholic
• Impatient
• Abrupt
• Tough
• Easily angered
• Insensitive
• Ill-tempered (short fuse)
• Intolerant
• Domineering

What motivates a Type A personality?

• Money
• Opportunity
• Freedom/independence
• Favorable risk-reward ratio
• Challenges
• Urgency
• Success
• Leadership

What are some common words or phrases that motivate or grab the attention of the Type A personality?

• “Let’s get it done.”
• Fast
• Results
• Immediate/today/now
• The bottom line
• “What do you think about ___?”
• “The best (newest, cutting-edge, etc.)”
• Take the challenge
• Great return on investment

What are the turnoffs, dislikes, and fears of the Type A personality?

• Touchy-feely things
• Long explanations or descriptions
• Explaining things in emotional terms or more than once to the same person
• Looking soft or vulnerable
• Falling into routines
• Being taken advantage of
• Losing

Which jobs attract a Type A personality?

• President/CEO
• General contractor
• Salesperson or sales manager
• Business owner
• Politician
• Entrepreneur
• Police/military officer
• Manager
• Executive

What do Type A personality traits look like at work?

People with Type A personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

• Goal-oriented
• Risk-taking
• Good under stress

Type A personalities don’t like a lot of restraints or restrictions placed on them. Instead, they prefer to work independently and set their own schedules. Since they often tend to be workaholics, it’s not unusual to see them put in whatever time and effort it takes to accomplish their goals. They may seem impatient at times, especially if they believe someone is spending too much time going over details with them or impeding the successful completion of whatever goal or project they’re focusing on at the moment.

Don’t be surprised to see this personality type in a supervisory position or management. Having an entrepreneurial streak, they may be a business owner or strive to own their own business someday. The Type A personality is not easily discouraged and will normally exude confidence.

If a Type A personality sees their day-to-day job as routine or repetitive, they’ll get bored easily and won’t enjoy the work. They’ll want others to view them as tough in these situations, but internally they may be miserable if the job is too routine. Type A personalities will do whatever is necessary to prevent themselves from falling into patterns or routines and seek freedom and independence instead. They’ll also be very dissatisfied if they believe someone is trying to take advantage of them or hold them back.

A Type A personality may not be very good at recognizing coworker’s feelings and needs. It’s not necessarily because they don’t care; rather, they’re extremely focused on achieving their goals and may not notice. If you’re looking for someone who works well under pressure and seems to excel in high-stress situations, the Type A personality is probably what you’re looking for.

What is a Type B personality?

The Type B personality is a very outgoing, energetic, and fast-paced individual who likes to be around people and enjoys being the center of attention. They’re good relationship builders, and most people like them right away. Their driving need is for approval, so they try to like everyone in hopes everyone will like them too. Compliments, acknowledgement of their achievements, words of admiration, and even applause from groups will be the most important thing you can do for them.

What are other names for the Type B personality?

Personality Tests & Approaches	Type B Personality Name
Hire Success® System	Socializer
Hippocrates	Sanguine (bodily humor: blood)
Plato	Artisan
Jung	Intuitor
DISC	I; direct/supporting
Insight	Green
Myers-Briggs	ENTJ, ENTP, INTJ, INTP
Enneagram	Helper/romantic
PSI	Promoter
Biblical character	Peter
Cartoon/comic characters	Snoopy (from Peanuts) / Tigger (from Winnie the Pooh)

What are Type B personality strengths?

• Enthusiasm
• Fun-loving
• Persuasiveness
• Easily liked by most people
• Friendliness
• Charismatic
• Idea person
• motivator
• Dreamer
• Lighthearted
• People-oriented
• Spontaneous
• Faster-paced
• Self-confident

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What are Type B personality weaknesses?

• Too self-involved
• May try to do too much at once
• Impatient
• Sometimes unrealistic
• Trouble being alone
• Doesn’t finish what was started
• Short attention span
• Arrogant or cocky
• Easily bored
• Self-indulgent
• Prone to sweeping generalizations
• Impulsive
• Procrastination
• Whimsical

What motivates a Type B personality?

• Public recognition
• Awards, plaques, certificates
• Having picture taken with celebrities
• Succeeding, especially beyond peers
• Being the center of attention, public speaker, director, etc.
• Acceptance
• The latest styles and/or trends

What are some common words or phrases that motivate or grab the attention of the Type B personality?

• “You look great.”
• “You’re the best ____.”
• “People love you.”
• “This will be fun.”
• Entertaining

What are the turnoffs, dislikes, and fears of the Type B personality?

• Public humiliation
• Being unappreciated
• Appearing uninvolved
• Nonsocial types
• Appearing unattractive
• People and things that distract attention
• Appearing unsuccessful
• Appearing unacceptable

Which jobs attract a Type B personality?

• Public relations
• Salesperson
• Entertainment
• Personnel interviewer
• Professional host(ess)
• Politician
• Recreation director
• Party planner
• Customer service/relations

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What do Type B personality traits look like at work?

People with Type B personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

• Relationship-oriented
• Outgoing
• Enthusiastic

Type B personalities love to talk about themselves. Some may view that as self-centered, but a Type B’s real motivation is to be liked. For an extreme (and funny) example, think of the character played by Bette Midler in the movie Beaches, when she invited an old friend up to see her lavish apartment and told her about her great success. Then she said to the friend: “Enough about me. Let’s talk about you. So, what do you think of me?”

The Type B personality’s biggest fear is being humiliated in public, since that might make many people disapprove of them, and the thought of that would be devastating. The B personality doesn’t want to appear unattractive or unsuccessful either, so they’ll make sure their appearance is impeccable and will always give the impression of being very successful at whatever they do, whether they are or not.

Some of the strengths you can count on from the Type B personality are their enthusiasm, outgoing behavior, friendliness toward others, and their ability to persuade even the most skeptical of people. They tend to be dreamers and can often turn those dreams into very practical ideas in the workplace. Type B personalities are normally spontaneous and use their quick wit and humor to make people like them. They aren’t very good about hiding their own feelings either, so if they’re hurt or disappointed, you’ll probably be able to read it in their mannerisms and overall disposition.

Some of the natural weaknesses that are associated with the Type B personality include being impatient, having a relatively short attention span, and not being very detail-oriented. In business, Type B personalities may tend to oversocialize and not spend as much time doing their work because they strive for the social interaction. Although this is their natural tendency, many have learned to keep their counterproductive impulses in check while benefiting from the positives of having a social nature.

What is a Type C personality?

The Type C personality is a very detail-oriented individual who likes to be involved in things that are controlled and stable. They’re interested in accuracy, rationality, and logic. People who can’t seem to control their emotions will bother them because Type C personalities believe being emotional makes objectivity difficult or perhaps impossible. They also dislike being around people who are full of hype, since they desire facts, accuracy, and logic. Other people’s emotions may not be a priority for them, as they tend to strive for the facts and let the chips fall where they may.

What are other names for the Type C personality?

Personality Tests & Approaches	Type C Personality Name
Hire Success® System	Thinker
Hippocrates	Melancholic (bodily humor: black bile)
Plato	Scientist
Jung	Thinker
DISC	C; indirect/controlling
Insight	Gold
Myers-Briggs	ESTJ, ESFJ, ISTJ, ISFJ
Enneagram	Asserter/perfectionist
PSI	Analyst
Biblical character	Moses
Cartoon/comic characters	Linus (from Peanuts) / Eeyore (from Winnie the Pooh)

What are Type C personality strengths?

• Accuracy
• Creative
• Dependable
• Imaginative
• Independent
• Detailed
• Follow-through
• Plays by the rules
• Organized
• Intelligent
• Analytical
• Critical thinker
• Quality control
• Thoughtful

What are Type C personality weaknesses?

• Worry about progress
• Can appear unsocial
• Critical behavior
• Likes to do things their own way
• Detached behavior
• Can see the glass half empty
• Skeptical, disbelieving
• May never have personal expectations met
• Disengagement

What motivates a Type C personality?

• Control
• Opportunities to be independent and analytical
• Challenges
• Problem-solving

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What are some common words or phrases that motivate or grab the attention of the Type C personality?

• Perfection
• “How does that work?”
• Quiet, solitude
• “Tell me more about ____.”

What are the turnoffs, dislikes, and fears of the Type C personality?

• Uncontrolled emotions
• Irrational acts
• Indecision
• People who are self-centered, or self-aggrandizement
• Loss of control
• Being subject to control or supervision by people they don’t trust or respect
• Distractions or distracting people

Which jobs attract a Type C personality?

• Forecaster
• Troubleshooter
• Critic
• Investigator (police, crime scene, private, etc.)
• Engineer
• Technical support
• Research scientist
• Game designer
• Data analyst
• Pilot
• Programmer/analyst
• Artist
• Actuary
• Musician
• Accountant/auditor
• Inventor

What do Type C personality traits look like at work?

People with Type C personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

• Detail-oriented
• Logical
• Prepared

Type C personalities tend to be quite controlling, both of themselves and others. They don’t like things to get out of hand and may not appear very expressive at times because they don’t really want themselves to display a lot of emotion. They’re very outcome-driven and will be sticklers for following procedures and protocol in getting the job done. They’re careful, resourceful, and, above all, excellent thinkers who will look at all aspects of an issue before taking a stand. Once they take a stand on an issue, though, they’ll have the facts to back it up, so anyone who challenges them better be prepared. They like their jobs to be clearly defined and want to know exactly what’s expected of them. Knowing those facts, they will be able to prioritize their tasks and see them through to completion.

When in decision-making roles, they’re cautious and logical, requiring many details and facts before they make a decision. People who try to sell them something by trying to get them emotionally involved usually fail; the Type C personality would consider such an effort to be hype and would wonder what facts the other person is trying to hide.

In more public roles, the Type C personality will strive for originality, cleverness, and uniqueness in all things. Because of their detail orientation, they’re meticulously prepared to defend their decisions against any possible objections. Many accountants and lawyers, for example, are Type C personalities. They’re excellent for any job that requires creative thinking based on patience, facts, and accuracy.

What is a Type D personality?

A Type D personality takes a slower, easier pace toward their work and life in general. They seek security and longevity on the job and are very happy doing a repetitive task, day in and day out. The repetition allows them to become very skilled in what they do. Likewise, they won’t like it if the rules change a lot, as that’s contrary to their desire to minimize change and stick with what they know works. For the Type D personality, even though the current way may be unpleasant, they worry that the unknown may be even worse.

What are other names for the Type D personality?

Personality Tests & Approaches	Type D Personality Name
Hire Success® System	Supporter
Hippocrates	Phlegmatic (bodily humor: phlegm)
Plato	Philosopher
Jung	Feeler
DISC	S; indirect/supporting
Insight	Orange
Myers-Briggs	ESTP, ESFP, ISTP, ISFP
Enneagram	Peacemaker/observer
PSI	Supporter
Biblical character	Abraham
Cartoon/comic characters	Charlie Brown (from Peanuts) / Winnie the Pooh

What are Type D personality strengths?

• Low-key
• Caring
• Sincere
• Compassionate
• Stable
• Fair and equitable
• Calm
• Unimposing
• Looks approachable
• Dependable
• Appearance of strength
• Trusting
• Minimal mood swings
• Self-confident
• Reliable
• Consistent
• Observant
• Good at routines or repetitive tasks

What are Type D personality weaknesses?

• Not speaking up
• Easily used by others
• Going along when they don’t agree
• Uncomfortable with constant change
• Going along to avoid confrontation
• Less assertive
• Gets hurt feelings
• Shy
• Resistant to change

What motivates a Type D personality?

• Stability
• Benefits
• Security
• Low risk
• Routine
• Team/group opportunities
• Calm work atmosphere

What are some common words or phrases that motivate or grab the attention of the Type D personality?

• “Help others in need.”
• Relaxed atmosphere
• Logical
• Rational

What are the turnoffs, dislikes, and fears of the Type D personality?

• Risks
• Pushy people
• Change (especially frequent change)
• Instability
• Disorganization
• Aggressive behavior
• Disruption in routine
• Surprises
• The unknown
• Conflict

Which jobs attract a Type D personality?

• Secure team position
• Administrator
• Financial services
• HR manager
• Social worker
• Bureaucrat
• Family doctor/nurse
• Assembly line worker
• Residential/community services
• Mechanic
• Teacher
• Counselor
• Personal assistant/secretary
• Minister
• Insurance agent
• Supervisor
• Librarian
• Security guard
• Customer service representative

What do Type D personality traits look like at work?

People with Type D personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:

• Task-oriented
• Stabilizing
• Cautious

They seek the respect, sincere admiration, and acceptance of others. The Type D personality will gladly work hard to please the people they work for as long as they feel appreciated and receive plenty of reassurance that they’re needed. They need that sense of security. Type D personalities often think the Type A personality is crazy for taking so many risks and not showing much concern for security and longevity.

Type D personalities are usually very organized; being around a messy environment or disorganization will bother them. They’re also good at playing a very supportive role with others and are normally very caring, thoughtful, and compassionate. They are patient, tend to be good listeners, and will persevere when all others have given up. They especially like working in a group or on a team and will be a stabilizing force in these scenarios.

Although they may not be as fast as others, they’re accurate and thorough. They’ll usually keep their feelings to themselves and are reluctant to express themselves, even if a more assertive type seems to be taking advantage of them. They tend to go along to get along.

To attract the Type D personality, be sure to talk about the company benefits package and the long-term growth potential within the company. Having a secure, stable environment will be very important to the Type D personality.

What is a Type X personality?

Whenever two or more personality types are equal in strength within a person, that person is considered a Type X personality. For example, if an individual’s two highest-strength personality types were A and B, they might be identified as AX and BX. In the extremely rare event that all four personality types were identical, that person would be considered simply as a Type X personality.

Type X personality traits

The X indicates a cross, or an intersection, of two or more types. It’s not unusual to see the X between two of the four personality types, and it doesn’t necessarily have to include the primary (or strongest) personality. However, when it does include the primary personality, the individual in question may have a tendency to be like one type in one situation and the other type in another. And when all four types are very close in strength, the individual may seem like a chameleon of personalities. This can be beneficial for many jobs, especially when it’s important that the person gets along with almost everybody, such as consultative sales people for example. The Type X personality tends to change personality “colors” as needed based on who they may be with. Although somewhat unpredictable at times, this rare combination could be an important asset if utilized fully.

How Personality Is Tested

To study and measure personality, psychologists have developed personality tests, assessments, and inventories. The tests are widely used in a variety of settings. For example, the famous Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is frequently used as a pre-employment screening assessment.

Other assessments can be used to help people learn more about different aspects of their personalities. Some tests are used as screening and evaluation tools to help diagnose personality disorders.

Gaining a better understanding of your personality can be helpful in many aspects of your life. For example, relationships with friends, family, and coworkers might improve when you become aware that you work well with others or that you need to make time to be alone.

You have probably encountered a selection of personality tests online (for example, an online quiz that tells you whether you are extroverted or introverted). Some of these tests purport to reveal the “real you,” while others are clearly meant only for entertainment.

Personality assessments that you take online should be taken with a grain of salt. Informal tools can be fun and might offer some insight into your preferences and characteristics, but only personality tests administered by trained and qualified professionals should be used as formal assessments or to make a diagnosis.

Personality Disorders

Personality psychologists are also interested in studying problems with personality that may arise. Personality disorders are characterized as chronic and pervasive mental disorders that can seriously impact a person’s thoughts, behaviors, and interpersonal functioning.

The current edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5 ) lists 10 personality disorders, including antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIH) reports that approximately 9.1% of the adult population in the United States experiences symptoms of at least one personality disorder each year.

Being diagnosed with a personality disorder can be distressing, but you should know that there are treatments. Working with a mental health professional, you can learn to recognize the difficulties that these disorders can cause and explore new coping strategies.

It is OK to feel frightened and concerned about what the future might hold but remember that you do not have to face it alone. There are people who are trained, skilled, and ready to help you take the next steps in your treatment.

Depending on your specific diagnosis, your doctor might recommend psychotherapy, skills training, medication, or a combination of all three.

Work closely with your healthcare team to develop a treatment plan that focuses on your needs and goals.

A Word From Verywell

Personality is a broad subject that touches on nearly every aspect of what makes people who they are. There are many ways to think about personality. There are some theories that focus on individual traits and those that consider the different developmental stages that take place as personality emerges (and sometimes changes) over time.

Psychologists are not only interested in understanding normal human personality, but in recognizing potential personality disturbances that might lead to distress or difficulty in key life areas. By being able to identify problems people have at home, school, work, or in their relationships, psychologists are better able to help people develop skills to cope and manage the symptoms of personality disorders.

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Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people. It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the social group.

Your unique personality makes you who you are and influences everything from your relationships to the way you live. Personality is something that you might be able to describe, but do you know what the scientific study of personality entails?

Personality psychology is one of the largest and most popular branches of psychology.

Professionals who study personality psychology want to understand how personality develops as well as how it influences the way we think and behave. Psychologists look at how personality varies among individuals as well as how people are similar. They also assess, diagnose, and treat personality disorders.

What exactly is personality? How can understanding your personality help you gain insight into your emotional well-being?

What Is Personality?

What is it that makes you who you are? Many factors contribute to the person you are today, including genetics, your upbringing, and your life experiences.

Many would argue that what makes you unique is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make up your personality. While there is no single agreed-upon definition of personality, it is often thought of as something that arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Personality encompasses all of the thoughts, behavior patterns, and social attitudes that impact how we view ourselves and what we believe about others and the world around us.

Understanding personality allows psychologists to predict how people will respond to certain situations and the sorts of things they prefer and value. To get a sense of how researchers study personality psychology, it will be helpful to learn more about some of the most influential personality theories.

Theories

A number of theories have emerged to explain the aspects of personality. Some are focused on explaining how personality develops, while others are concerned with individual differences in personality.

Trait Theories of Personality

The trait theories of personality center on the idea that personality is comprised of broad traits or dispositions. Various theories have been proposed to identify which attributes are key components in personality, as well as attempts to determine the total number of personality traits.

Psychologist Gordon Allport was one of the first to describe personality in terms of individual traits. In his dispositional perspective, Allport suggested that there are different kinds of traits: common, central, and cardinal.

Common traits are shared by many people within a particular culture. Central traits are those that make up an individual’s personality. Cardinal traits are those that are so dominant that a person becomes primarily known for those characteristics.

An example of a cardinal trait is Mother Teresa. She was so well-known for her charitable work that her name became almost synonymous with providing service to those in need.

Allport suggested that there were as many as 4,000 individual traits. Psychologist Raymond Cattell proposed that there were 16. Cattell also believed that these traits exist on a continuum and that all people possess each trait in varying degrees.

A psychologist named Hans Eysenck would narrow the list of traits further, suggesting there were only three: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Today, the “Big Five” theory is perhaps the most popular and widely accepted trait theory of personality. The theory proposes that personality is made up of five broad personality dimensions:

• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Extroversion
• Neuroticism
• Openness

The Big Five theory states that each trait exists as a broad continuum. An individual’s personality will fall somewhere on the spectrum for each trait.

For example, you might be high in extroversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, but somewhere in the middle for openness and neuroticism.

Physiological type theories

The idea that people fall into certain personality type categories in relation to bodily characteristics has intrigued numerous modern psychologists as well as their counterparts among the ancients. The idea that people must fall into one or another rigid personality class, however, has been largely dismissed. Two general sets of theories are considered here, the humoral and the morphological.

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Humoral theories

Perhaps the oldest personality theory known is contained in the cosmological writings of the Greek philosopher and physiologist Empedocles and in related speculations of the physician Hippocrates. Empedocles’ cosmic elements—air (with its associated qualities, warm and moist), earth (cold and dry), fire (warm and dry), and water (cold and moist)—were related to health and corresponded (in the above order) to Hippocrates’ physical humours, which were associated with variations in temperament: blood (sanguine temperament), black bile (melancholic), yellow bile (choleric), and phlegm (phlegmatic). This theory, with its view that body chemistry determines temperament, has survived in some form for more than 2,500 years. According to these early theorists, emotional stability as well as general health depend on an appropriate balance among the four bodily humours; an excess of one may produce a particular bodily illness or an exaggerated personality trait. Thus, a person with an excess of blood would be expected to have a sanguine temperament—that is, to be optimistic, enthusiastic, and excitable. Too much black bile (dark blood perhaps mixed with other secretions) was believed to produce a melancholic temperament. An oversupply of yellow bile (secreted by the liver) would result in anger, irritability, and a “jaundiced” view of life. An abundance of phlegm (secreted in the respiratory passages) was alleged to make people stolid, apathetic, and undemonstrative. As biological science has progressed, these primitive ideas about body chemistry have been replaced by more complex ideas and by contemporary studies of hormones, neurotransmitters, and substances produced within the central nervous system, such as endorphins.

Morphological (body type) theories

Related to the biochemical theories are those that distinguish types of personalities on the basis of body shape (somatotype). Such a morphological theory was developed by the German psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer. In his book Physique and Character, first published in 1921, he wrote that among his patients a frail, rather weak (asthenic) body build as well as a muscular (athletic) physique were frequently characteristic of schizophrenic patients, while a short, rotund (pyknic) build was often found among manic-depressive patients. Kretschmer extended his findings and assertions in a theory that related body build and personality in all people and wrote that slim and delicate physiques are associated with introversion, while those with rounded heavier and shorter bodies tend to be cyclothymic—that is, moody but often extroverted and jovial.

Despite early hopes that body types might be useful in classifying personality characteristics or in identifying psychiatric syndromes, the relations observed by Kretschmer were not found to be strongly supported by empirical studies. In the 1930s more elaborate studies by William H. Sheldon in the United States developed a system for assigning a three-digit somatotype number to people, each digit with a range from 1 to 7. Each of the three digits applies to one of Sheldon’s three components of body build: the first to the soft, round endomorph, the second to the square, muscular mesomorph; and the third to the linear, fine-boned ectomorph. Thus, an extreme endomorph would be 711, an extreme ectomorph 117, and an average person 444. Sheldon then developed a 20-item list of traits that differentiated three separate categories of behaviours or temperaments. The three-digit temperament scale appeared to be significantly related to the somatotype profile, an association that failed to excite personologists.

Personality key people

• Sigmund Freud
• Karen Horney
• Wilhelm Reich
• Harold Lasswell
• William Sheldon
• E. Mavis Hetherington
• Dale Carnegie
• Raymond B. Cattell
• Gordon Allport
• Neil Smelser

related topics

• Human behaviour
• Personality assessment
• Psychology
• Parenting
• Personal identity
• Infant and toddler development
• Emotional development
• Psychological development
• Neuroticism
• Queer

Psychoanalytic theories

Freud

Perhaps the most influential integrative theory of personality is that of psychoanalysis, which was largely promulgated during the first four decades of the 20th century by the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Although its beginnings were based in studies of psychopathology, psychoanalysis became a more general perspective on normal personality development and functioning. The field of investigation began with case studies of so-called neurotic conditions, which included hysteria, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and phobic conditions. Patients with hysterical symptoms complained of acute shortness of breath, paralyses, and contractures of limbs for which no physical cause could be found. In the course of interviews, Freud and his early coworker and mentor, the Austrian physician Josef Breuer, noted that many of their patients were unsure of how or when their symptoms developed and even seemed indifferent to the enormous inconvenience the symptoms caused them. It was as if the ideas associated with the symptoms were quarantined from the consciousness and lay neglected by normal curiosity. To explain this strange pattern Breuer and Freud made two assumptions. The first was based on the general scientific position of determinism, which was quite prevalent in 19th-century science: although no apparent physical causes could be implicated, these neurotic symptoms were nevertheless caused, or determined, perhaps not by one but by multiple factors, some of which were psychologically motivated. The second assumption entailed unconscious psychological processes; that is, ideas continue to be active, to change, and to influence behaviour even when they are outside of awareness. One source for this assumption was the observation of posthypnotic suggestion, which seemed to imply that past experiences, surviving outside of consciousness as latent memories, could be activated by a signal from the environment and could then influence behaviour even though the hypnotized person was unaware of the reasons for his behaviour.

Breuer and Freud believed that the specific motivation for these neurotic symptoms lay in the patient’s desire to obliterate from memory profoundly distressing events that were incompatible with the patient’s moral standards and therefore in conflict with them. These events were considered to have been sexual in nature, and further exploration convinced Freud that his patients had had even earlier troublesome sexual experiences—usually seductions—the memories of which had lain dormant until awakened by a more recent sexual encounter. Freud reasoned that the earlier seduction experience imparted to the later one its pathogenic force. Freud at first accepted many of the experiences reported by his young, impressionable patients as actual seductions. He later came to believe that many, though not all, of the narrations were fantasies. Based upon this conviction Freud formulated a theory indicating that personality is shaped by such experiences as well as by other traumatic or frustrating events. He postulated that the fantasies about sexual traumas were expressions of a sexual drive. Thereafter in Freud’s therapeutic method, the search for actual sexual trauma was replaced by an exploration of the ways in which patients’ sexual inclinations, already present in childhood, were expressed in behaviour. Neurosis and personality in general came to be viewed as outcomes of conflict between sexual motivations and defenses against them, the conflict being rooted in early child development.

Freud assumed that his patients were motivated to ward off those fantasies that had an exciting as well as a repelling quality about them. Freud described various psychological devices (defense mechanisms) by which people tried to make the fantasies bearable. For example, in the obsessive-compulsive condition, which refers to persistent unwelcome ideas or recurrent irresistible urges to perform certain acts, such as incessant hand washing, the defense maneuvers are called isolation and displacement. They consist in separating (isolating) a fantasy from its corresponding emotion, and then attaching (displacing) the emotion to another, previously trivial idea; for instance, to the hand washer it is the hands that are dirty rather than the desires. Freud also noted that people who rely on isolation and displacement are otherwise characterized by nonpathological personality qualities such as perfectionism, indecisiveness, and formality in interpersonal contacts. To Freud the fantasies were the mental representations of basic drives, among which sex, aggression, and self-preservation were paramount. These drives, moreover, required taming as the child matured into an adult, and the taming process involved blocking out of consciousness some of the ideas associated with the expression of those drives. Other methods of defense include repression, a kind of withholding of conflicting ideas from recall; projection, the attribution to others of one’s own rejected tendencies; and reaction formation, turning into its opposite a tendency rejected in oneself—as in excessive generosity as a defense against avarice. The basic conflict between drives and control processes, which Freud believed to be the basis of several neuroses, was also invoked to explain both dream content and the “psychopathology of everyday life”—the ordinary slips of the tongue (sometimes called Freudian slips) and errors such as forgetting intentions or misplacing objects.

These primary human drives, moreover, were seen to undergo transformations as part of psychological and physical growth. This formulation widened the realm of sexuality beyond reproduction, by proposing that genital activity does not encompass all of sexuality, because sexual activity can be observed long before biological maturity and can occur without leading to reproduction. The theory further proposed that sexual maturation develops in a sequence of stages as parts of the body successively yield sensual pleasure to the child, beginning with the mouth, followed by the anus, and then the genitals. Social demands for inhibition and control of the drives centre about the functions of these zones, and it is from this process of socialization that personality is said to emerge. For example, the extent to which the personality expresses power, responsibility, compliance, and defiance seems to coincide with anal expressions of the sexual drive and is related to the process of obtaining control over anal functions.

The conflict between the drives—conceptualized as a wholly unconscious structure called the id—and the drive control processes—conceptualized as a largely unconscious structure called the ego—results in the creation of a characteristic style for mediating conflicts, which is assumed to be formed prior to adolescence. While learning and experience are recognized as conspicuous factors in the shaping of these behaviours, the theory also gives prominence to possibly inborn differences in the strength of drives and of the control processes.

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Among the controlling functions of the ego are identifications and defenses. Children are inclined to behave like the significant adult models in their environment, Freud postulated. These identifications give identity and individuality to the maturing child. Moreover, the process of self-criticism is part of the ego controls (Freud called it the superego) and acts as an internal and often unconscious conscience that influences moral values.

Jung

The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, an early adherent of Freud’s theories, questioned the degree of emphasis that Freud gave to sexual motivations in personality development. Jung accepted the significant effect of the unconscious processes, but unlike Freud he preferred to emphasize that behaviour is motivated more by abstract, even spiritual, processes than by sexual drives. Jung also focused more on individual differences; in particular he developed a typology of reaction styles, distinguishing between two basic means of modulating basic drives, introversion and extroversion. Introversion was defined as preoccupation with one’s inner world at the expense of social interactions and extroversion as a preference for social interplay for living out inner drives (collectively termed libido). The existence of these two types receives empirical support from most studies of traits (see below Trait theories).

Adler

The Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler, another of Freud’s early followers, also disputed the importance of sexual motives. Adler described a coping strategy that he called compensation, which he felt was an important influence on behaviour. In his view people compensated for a behavioral deficiency by exaggerating some other behaviour: a process analogous to organic processes called hypertrophy, in which, for example, if one eye is injured, the other eye may compensate by becoming more acute. In Adler’s view, a person with a feeling of inferiority related to a physical or mental inadequacy would also develop compensating behaviours or symptoms. Shortness of stature, for example, could lead to the development of domineering, controlling behaviours. Adler assigned a prominent place to family dynamics in personality development. Children’s position in their family—their birth order—was seen as determining significant character traits.

Erikson

Freud’s emphasis on the developmental unfolding of the sexual, aggressive, and self-preservative motives in personality was modified by the American psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson, who integrated psychological, social, and biological factors. Erikson’s scheme proposed eight stages of the development of drives, which continue past Freud’s five stages of childhood (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) and through three stages of adulthood. The stages proceed in leaps according to what is called an epigenetic process. The term epigenesis, borrowed from embryology, refers to the predetermined developmental sequence of parts of an organism. Each part has a special time for its emergence and for its progressive integration within the functioning whole. Each phase of emergence depends upon the successful completion of the preceding phase. According to Erikson, environmental forces exercise their greatest effect on development at the earliest stages of growth, because anything that disturbs one stage affects all of the following stages. As if controlled by a biological timetable, each given stage must be superseded by a new one, receding in significance as the new stage assumes dominance. A constant interleaving at critical periods—in which some parts emerge while others are suppressed—must proceed smoothly if personality problems are to be avoided.

The Freudian theory of development with Erikson’s modifications provides for a succession of drive-control (inner and environmental) interactions. These can be fit into a schema of polar attitudes that develop in progressive stages of a person’s life, creating a conflict at each stage which should be resolved to avoid extremes of personality development. Erikson thus evolved his eight stages of development, which he described as: (1) infancy: trust versus mistrust; (2) early childhood: autonomy versus shame and doubt; (3) preschool: initiative versus guilt; (4) school age: industry versus inferiority; (5) puberty: identity versus identity confusion; (6) young adulthood: intimacy versus isolation; (7) middle adulthood: generativity versus stagnation; and (8) late adulthood: integrity versus despair.

The impact of psychoanalysis

There is little doubt that psychoanalysis had a profound influence on personality theory during the 20th century. It turned attention from mere description of types of people to an interest in how people become what they are. Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes that the human organism is constantly, though slowly, changing through perpetual interactions, and that, therefore, the human personality can be conceived of as a locus of change with fragile and indefinite boundaries. It suggests that research should focus not only on studies of traits, attitudes, and motives but also on studies that reflect the psychoanalytic view that personality never ceases to develop and that even the rate of personality modification changes during the course of a life. Although the theory holds that conflict and such basic drives as sex and aggression figure prominently in personality development and functioning, their presence may be neither recognizable nor comprehensible to persons untrained to look for those motives. However, personality characteristics are relatively stable over time and across situations, so that a person remains recognizable despite change. Another feature of psychoanalytic theory is the insistence that personality is affected by both biological and psychosocial forces that operate principally within the family, with the major foundations being laid early in life.

The data on which psychoanalytic theory rests came from the psychoanalysts’ consulting rooms, where patients in conflict told their life stories to their analysts. No provision is made in that setting for experimental manipulation, for independent observation, or for testing the generality of the formulations. As a consequence, although much of the theory has found its way into accepted doctrine, psychoanalysis cannot claim a body of experimentally tested evidence. Nevertheless, psychoanalytic theory provides at least a preliminary framework for much of personality research involving motives and development.

Similar Topics

• Human sexual activity
• Motivation
• Perception
• Human intelligence
• Memory
• Emotion
• Creativity
• Mind
• Attitude
• Anomie

Trait theories

Contemporary personality studies are generally empirical and based on experiments. While they are more precise, and thus may be more valid than much of psychoanalytic theory, experiments perforce have a narrower scope than the grand sweep of psychoanalysis. In the 1940s many investigators focused on intensive studies of individual traits and of combinations of traits that seemed to define personality types, such as the “authoritarian personality.” Others, like the American psychologists David C. McClelland and John W. Atkinson, studied the characteristic presence of certain needs identified by Murray, such as the need for achievement or affiliation. The method used to measure these needs was to examine the fantasy productions of Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and to relate the motive score to other behavioral indexes such as personal history, occupational choice, speed of learning, and persistence of behaviour following failure.

Stability of traits

Traits such as sociability, impulsiveness, meticulousness, truthfulness, and deceit are assumed to be more or less stable over time and across situations. Traits refer not to single instances of a behaviour, such as lying, but to persistent although not unvarying behaviour that, according to some personologists, implies a disposition to respond in a particular, identifiable way. According to Allport’s 1937 textbook, traits represent structures or habits within a person and are not the construction of observers; they are the product of both genetic predispositions and experience. It can be generally stated that traits are merely names for observed regularities in behaviour, but do not explain them. Nevertheless, the study of how traits arise and are integrated within a person forms a major area of personality studies.

In the English language there are several thousand words representing traits, many of them close in meaning to others (for example, meticulous, careful, conscientious). Most of the measurement studies employ self-report (personality) inventories that require people to describe themselves by checking relevant adjectives or answering questions about typical behaviours that they are conscious of displaying. In some measurements, observers rate the behaviour of others. Psychologists such as Hans J. Eysenck in the United Kingdom and Raymond B. Cattell in the United States have attempted to reduce the list to what they could consider to be the smallest possible number of trait clusters. The statistical technique of factor analysis has been favoured for this task, since it explores the correlations among all of the trait names and identifies clusters of correlations among traits that appear to be independent of (uncorrelated with) each other. Common to almost all the trait systems are variables related to emotional stability, energy level, dominance, and sociability, although different investigators choose different names for these factors. Eysenck, for example, has reduced the trait names to but three higher-order factors—introversion–extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism—and has attempted to explore the biological roots of each factor.

Deviation from trait theory

The idea that traits represent relatively stable behaviours has received criticism from psychologists who point out that behavioral consistency across situations and across time is not the rule. For example, in a study of children’s moral development, the American psychologists Hugh Hartshorne and Mark A. May in 1928 placed 10- to 13-year-old children in situations that gave them the opportunity to lie, steal, or cheat; to spend money on themselves or on other children; and to yield to or resist distractions. The predictive power of personal and educational background was low, and children were not found consistently honest or dishonest, distractible, or altruistic. The most powerful predictor of children’s behaviour was what other children around them were doing.

In the 1960s and ’70s some psychologists, including Walter Mischel and Albert Bandura in the United States, recalled the Hartshorne and May study and variations of it to support their view that behaviour is controlled not by hypothetical traits but according to the degree of regularity of external stimuli. That is, they believe that personality traits are only consistent if the situation is consistent and that they vary once the situation changes. In their view, behavioral consistency does not reflect stable personality traits. Rather, it is the environment that evokes and shapes the illusion of such traits. This would be in keeping with the view of social learning theorists that personality, like other elements of a person’s psychological makeup, is largely a learning phenomenon related to such factors as the imitation of role models. Social learning theory would also contend that personality is more susceptible to change than would trait theory.

Although it has been demonstrated that behaviour is seldom entirely consistent, it also has been shown that it reflects considerable consistency. Even in the Hartshorne and May study some children showed consistently honest or dishonest behaviour, and behavioral consistency was found to increase with age.

Support for personal consistency is bolstered by studies of what has been called the fundamental attribution error. The investigators, most of them social psychologists, report that, in observing the behaviour of others, people exaggerate the role of internal causes and invoke traits as a primary cause (e.g., “John acted the way he did because he is honest”). In assigning cause to their own behaviour, however, people more often cite external causes such as the particular situation. These tendencies are accompanied by another discovered regularity: in seeking sources for their own behaviour, people are likely to favour internal causes (and thus agree with an observer’s judgment) when they consider a behaviour to be desirable (e.g., success, as in “I was successful because I am skillful”), and they invoke external, situational causes in judging a behaviour they deem undesirable (e.g., failure, as in “I failed because the test was unfair”). There are, of course, limits to the regularity with which these generalizations hold. Because people tend to know their own characteristics better than observers do, they are generally more aware than observers are of any divergences from their usual behaviour.

Although people may assume the existence of traits in themselves, they do not, in analyzing a specific situation, see themselves as a mere collection of trait names. Consequently, they are not for the most part perplexed by, and often do not recognize, cross-situational inconsistency in their own behaviour. But in observing another person’s behaviour, most people attribute high consistency to that person, as if many positive traits could be inferred from the attribution or observation of one positive trait. For example, the American social psychologist Solomon Asch has shown that a physically attractive person will tend to be judged as having many other desirable qualities. Asch also demonstrated that, in forming impressions of the personal characteristics of others, observers are most influenced by their first impression. The reason first impressions seem to be almost indelible is that they carry an excessive amount of new information, which has a high degree of unpredictability. That is, the more new information contained in an event, the more attention it attracts. Since impressions about a person tend to be integrated into a single characterization, an observer may be jarred by recognizing an undesirable fact about an attractive person and may try either to ignore that fact or to mitigate (rationalize) it. These propensities make up a “common sense psychology,” in the words of Fritz Heider, an American psychologist. This “naive” psychology, as he called it, consists of a set of rules that guide most people’s impressions of other people and of social situations. These rules are used constantly to interpret one’s own and other people’s behaviour and to predict behaviour under certain conditions. The psychoanalytic view, however, seriously challenges this common sense psychology. Psychoanalysis has no problem explaining that those who put to death countless people in the Nazi death chambers, for example, could also be devoted parents, whereas common sense psychology would have difficulty with this. For the psychoanalyst, a personality may be integrated, but it is rarely seamless and regular. People generally make two types of errors in judging personality: they impute more personality consistency to others than the actors themselves would allow, and they often ignore the operation of unconscious psychological processes that can explain at least some of the inconsistencies.

Much work on trait structure and impression formation has concerned adjectival words that describe traits, and the fact that these studies have been carried out principally in the United States and western Europe has led some anthropologists, such as the American Robert LeVine, to remark that modern personality trait theory is ethnocentric. For example, the folk-psychological concepts and the trait matrices derived from factor analyses include culture-specific assumptions about personal experiences, such as the distinctions between mind and body, natural and supernatural, and intellect and morality, which do not exist in the folk traditions of many non-Western peoples. Unlike most other cultures, Western thought assumes that a high degree of personal autonomy is desirable and that the most important emotional and personal relations are with a marital partner. For some psychologists these cultural differences point to the need for a less culture-bound approach to personality trait theory.

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