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Baking, process of cooking by dry heat, especially in some kind of oven. It is probably the oldest cooking method. Bakery products, which include bread, rolls, cookies, pies, pastries, and muffins, are usually prepared from flour or meal derived from some form of grain. Bread, already a common staple in prehistoric times, provides many nutrients in the human diet.

Ingredients and their uses

Baking powder is probably the most common aerating agent in baked products like cakes. It is made up of bicarbonate of soda and cream of tartar. Baking powder is a chemical aeration agent.

Eggs are another basic ingredient in many baked products. They provide structure, aeration, flavour and moisture. They also tenderise cakes and add colour and nutritive value.

Fats and oils Generally, fats are solid while oils are liquid. Fats come from a variety of animals and plants. Oils mostly come from plants. In baking, butter, margarine, shortening and oils are commonly used. Their main functions are to shorten or tenderise the product, to trap air during creaming and so aerate the cake during baking to give good volume and texture, to assist with layering in puff pastry, to help prevent curdling by forming an emulsion, and to add flavour.  They also provide some nutritive value. It is important to add the correct amount of fat as too much far will make the baked product greasy and unpleasant to eat, while too little fat will leave you with a product that lacks flavour and stales quickly.

 Flour is the ingredient on which most baked products are based. Flour is made up of starch, protein, sugar and minerals. The protein content decides what the end use of the flour will be.

Milk is used in baked products to improve texture and mouthfeel. The protein in milk also gives a soft crumb structure in cakes, and contributes to the moisture, colour and flavour of a baked product. Cakes that contain milk also tend to have a longer shelf life.

Salt is usually only added in very small amounts to baked products, but it has a noticeable effect on the flavour of baked products. It not only provides its own flavour but brings out the natural flavour of other ingredients. In bread doughs, salt strengthens gluten and improves the consistency of the dough. Carbon dioxide given off by the yeast is more easily trapped by the strengthened gluten, which makes a better loaf of bread. Salt is also a good preservative as it absorbs water so there is less free water for bacterial and fungal growth.

Sugar gives cakes and other baked products sweetness and is used in many forms and many ways. In yeast raised products, sugar acts as food for the yeast. In cakes, sugar assists with the aeration and stabilising of batters. Sugars improve the crust colour of baked products, improve flavour and help to retain moisture, keeping products softer for longer and so reducing staling. Examples of sugar forms are granulated sugar, castor sugar and icing sugar. Sugar also comes in liquid forms such as syrup, treacle, corn syrup, honey and caramel.

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Yeast belongs to the fungi family. It ferments carbohydrates (sugars) to produce carbon dioxide gases and alcohol, which aerate bread and other yeasted products, giving it volume and texture. These by-products of yeast also contribute to the colour and aroma of bread and other yeasted products.

Microwaving

Microwaving is an easy, convenient, and safe method of cooking.

Short cooking times and reduced exposure to heat preserve the nutrients in microwaved food.

In fact, studies have found that microwaving is the best method for retaining the antioxidant activity of garlic and mushrooms.

Meanwhile, about 20–30% of the vitamin C in green vegetables is lost during microwaving, which is less than most cooking methods.

Summary

Microwaving is a safe cooking method that preserves most nutrients due to short cooking times.

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Eggs are a common food, which are also incredibly nutritious as well. There are a number of important nutrients in it including vitamins A, B2, B5, B6, B12, D, E and K as well as folate, phosphorous, selenium, calcium and zinc. All of these are contained within just one boiled egg, which also contains 6 grams of protein as well as 5 grams of healthy fats. Not only do you get all of these nutrients with just one boiled egg, it’s calorie count is pretty healthy as well.

The following points highlight the two types of eggs. The types are: 1. Eggs Based on Quantity of Yolk 2. Eggs Based on Distribution of Yolk in Cytoplasm.

Type # 1. Eggs Based on Quantity of Yolk: 

1. Microlecithal Eggs:

They contain very small amount of yolk, e.g. eggs of Sea urchin, Herdmania, amphioxus. The eggs of man contain very little amount of yolk, hence human egg is alecithal (almost free of yolk).

2. Mesolecithal Eggs:

They contain moderate amount of yolk, e.g., eggs of lamprey, lung fish, frogs and toads.

3. Macrolecithal (Megalecithal or Polylecithal) Eggs:

They contain large amount of yolk, e.g., eggs of insects, sharks, bony fishes, reptiles, birds and egg laying mammals.

Type # 2. Eggs Based on Distribution of Yolk in Cytoplasm:

1. Homolecithal Eggs:

Yolk is uniformly distributed, e.g. eggs of annelids, molluscs, echinoderms and protochordates.

2. Telolecithal Eggs:

Yolk is concentrated in the vegetal half, e.g. eggs of amphibians.

3. Meiolecithal Eggs:

Yolk is very large which occupies nearly the entire ooplasm, leaving free only a small disc like area of cytoplasm for the nucleus, e.g., eggs of reptiles, birds and egg laying mammals.

4. Centrolecithal Eggs:

Yolk is localized at the centre, e.g. eggs of insects.

utritive value of eggs

A large egg contains

• Calories : 80
• Protein : 6.3 grams
• Carbohydrates : 0.6 grams
• Total Fat : 5.0 grams
  • Monounsaturated fat : 2.0 grams
  • Polyunsaturated fat : 0.7 grams
  • Saturated fat : 1.5 grams
• Cholesterol : 213 milligrams
• Sodium : 063 milligrams

Nutritive value of egg white and egg yolk

The nutritional value of an egg is divided between the egg white and the egg yolk.

The white contains more than half the egg’s total protein, niacin, riboflavin, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and sulfur and all the egg’s zinc.

The yolk contains all of the fat in the egg and a little less than half of the protein. It also contains the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. Egg yolks are one of the few foods naturally containing vitamin D. The yolk also provides vitamin B 12 and folic acid, and the minerals iron, calcium, copper and phosphorus.

The yolk contains approximately 190 mg of cholesterol and 5 grams of fat, less than a third of which is saturated fat. In the 1980’s science focused on the amount of cholesterol in eggs, however recent nutrition information indicates that it is more important to focus on reducing the intake of total fat and saturated fat rather than cholesterol. This is good news for eggs. It is not necessary to limit egg or egg yolk consumption unless recommended by your physician.

While each egg white is fat and cholesterol free, yolks contain 213 milligrams of cholesterol (approximately 22% less cholesterol than previously thought) and 5 grams of total fat. Only 1.5 grams of the yolk’s fat is saturated, the kind of fat that is most likely to increase blood cholesterol levels. In fact, compared with dietary cholesterol, saturated fat exerts a four times stronger influence on blood cholesterol levels. Just published research actually saw an increase in the HDL or the “good” cholesterol levels of subjects who added an egg each day to their diet [Farrel et al. 1998. Am J Clin Nutr. 68: 538-544.].

Biological Value of eggs

• Eggs have been considered the standard against which all other protein foods are measured because their protein composition is so ideal.
• Eggs are considered a complete protein because they contain all nine essential amino acids, or the building blocks of protein.
• One large egg contains 6.3 grams of protein. The protein is almost equally split between the egg white and the egg yolk. The white contains 3.5 grams of protein while the yolk contains 2.8 grams. The protein in an egg contains all the essential amino acids used for growth and development.
• Based on the essential amino acids it provides, egg protein is second only to mother’s milk for human nutrition.
• Essential amino acids must be provided by the food we eat because our body cannot produce them. Nine amino acids cannot be made by the body. These nine are known as essential amino acids and you must get them from the foods you eat. Foods that contain all nine essential amino acids are called complete protein foods. The nine essential amino acids are : Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Threonine, Histidine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, Methionine and Lysine The remaining acids if not supplied in the diet is produced mostly from the essential amino acids.
• Scientists frequently use eggs as a standard for measuring the protein quality of other foods. Protein quality is expressed as biological value, which measures the rate of efficiency that protein is used for growth. At 93.7%, eggs score higher than any other food. On a scale with 100 representing top efficiency, following are the biological values of proteins in several foods.
  • Fish : 76.0
  • Beef : 74.3
  • Soybeans : 72.8
  • Polished rice : 64.0
  • Wheat, whole : 64.0
  • Corn : 60.0
  • Beans, dry : 58.0

Source : National Egg Coordination Committee

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Health benefits

The egg is a wholesome, nutritious food with high nutrient density because, in proportion to its calorie count, it provides 12% of the daily value of protein and a wide variety of other nutrients such as vitamins, essential amino acids and minerals.

While protein itself is an important constituent of healthy diet, the egg has been found to have two newly-recognized nutrients – lutein and zeaxanthin – that has put the egg in the “functional food” category. A functional food is one that provides health benefits beyond its basic nutrient content.

The health benefits you get by eating eggs are as follows.

• Eggs do not raise blood cholesterol: It is true that when you eat eggs, cholesterol enters your body. However, eggs also give a signal for the liver to stop producing the cholesterol it usually produces. The increase in the intake of cholesterol compensates for the decrease in the cholesterol produced by the liver and therefore keeps the blood cholesterol levels constant.
• Eggs have choline: Choline is an incredibly important nutrient for your body. This is because it helps build cell membranes and is also crucial when it comes to the production of certain signalling molecules in the brain. A single egg has about 100 milligrams of this nutrient and therefore is one of the best sources of it.
• Eggs are good for your eyes: Eggs have two very important nutrients for your eyes. These are Lutein and Zeaxanthin. These nutrients stop degenerative processes from occurring in the eye. Recent studies have shown that consuming lutein and zeaxanthin can significantly lower risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of blindness affecting people over the age of 65. In addition, these reduce the likelihood of cataracts.
• Eggs have high levels of Omega-3 fatty acids: Eggs that are boiled have a high level of Omega-3 fatty acids in them. Omega-3 fatty acids are crucial for reducing the chances of you suffering from heart disease due to the fact that it reduces your triglyceride levels.
• Eggs are an excellent source of protein: This is the biggest reason to eat eggs. Eating eggs helps you to lose weight, optimizing bone health and lowering blood pressure.
• Egg may reduce the risk of stroke: Studies have shown that eggs are not only good for your heart, but they also reduce the likelihood of suffering from a stroke.

How to tell if an egg is fresh?

Lower the egg into a bowl of water. If the egg sinks and lies on its side, it is fresh, if the egg stands, it is less fresh and if the egg floats to the top, it is stale and should not be eaten.

How to store eggs?

• Store eggs in a cool place that is not too dry, away from strongly flavoured foods like cheese and onions.
• Always keep eggs standing with the broad end up.
• Eggs should always be at room temperature before cooking. If taken from a refrigerator, run a little warm water over them.

Tips on cooking eggs

• Cook eggs on a low flame or they will toughen and lose their flavour.
• Do not boil eggs in aluminium pans or the pan will blacken.
• Always use a wooden spoon to stir eggs while cooking in an aluminium pan or the eggs will turn grey-green.
• To separate the egg yolk from the white, knock the egg sharply against the rim of a bowl. Break the shell in half and slip the yolk from one half-shell to the other, until all the white has drained into a bowl. Finally, slide all the yolk into another bowl. If any yolk should get into the white, remove it with the edge of the egg shell, a teaspoon or the corner of a piece of absorbent kitchen paper. Even a tiny bit of yolk will prevent egg whites from whisking to their full volume.
• Whole eggs should be whisked vigorously, turning them over with upward movements using a fork, spoon or electric mixer. Whisking draws in air. This increases the volume of the eggs. It is important to use whisked eggs immediately before they lose air. When mixing egg yolks and sugar, whisk the yolks first, then add the sugar and continue whisking until the mixture drops from the whisk in broad ribbons. Egg whites, whisked to a stiff but not dry foam, are used for soufflés and meringues. Use a clean and dry bowl, of a shape that keeps the whisk in constant contact with the eggs.
• To fold in egg whites, pile the beaten egg whites on top of the mixture. With a metal spoon, draw part of the mixture from the bottom of the bowl over the whites. Incorporate all the whites carefully so that they do not lose their air content.
• Before adding eggs to hot mixtures, beat the eggs or egg yolks just enough to blend. Stir in a small amount of the hot mixture and mix well. Gradually add this to the remaining hot mixture, stirring constantly away from the heat. The eggs will thicken or bind the mixture

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The three major strands of the nutrition planning literature — the socio-economic consequences of malnutrition, its determinants and characteristics, and the solutions offered to the problem — are examined by the authors and found wanting. There are serious limitations both in analysis of the problems and proposals for action in most work on nutrition policies because macro-level social, institutional, economic and political factors are neglected.

The relationship between health and economic development is explored, focusing on nutrition-based health indicators. The spotlight is placed on the interrelated feedbacks between the influence of health on productivity, on one hand, and the influence of income on health status, on the other. Disentangling causality in these relationships has preoccupied much of the literature; the authors evaluate different empirical strategies that have been adopted and assess the results. There is now a body of evidence based on careful empirical studies that demonstrates a causal relationship between health and labor productivity; there is also evidence that, at least among the very poor, additional income is spent on improved nutrition. There are two issues that have received little attention although, the authors argue, they are likely to be very important. First, measurement of health is discussed in detail. Evidence is presented on how taking into account differences in the extent of measurement error is critical for interpreting the impact of health on wages. The same theme emerges in studies of the effect of income on health (specifically calorie intake). The key role of non-linearities in these relationships is highlighted and the authors demonstrate that a good deal of the variation in estimates of income elasticities of demand for calories can be ascribed to the role of measurement and functional form.

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WHO’s response

Nutrition for Health and Development

Nutrition is an input to and foundation for health and development. Interaction of infection and malnutrition is well-documented. Better nutrition means stronger immune systems, less illness and better health. Healthy children learn better. Healthy people are stronger, are more productive and more able to create opportunities to gradually break the cycles of both poverty and hunger in a sustainable way. Better nutrition is a prime entry point to ending poverty and a milestone to achieving better quality of life.

Freedom from hunger and malnutrition is a basic human right and their alleviation is a fundamental prerequisite for human and national development.

WHO has traditionally focused on the vast magnitude of the many forms of nutritional deficiency, along with their associated mortality and morbidity in infants, young children and mothers. However, the world is also seeing a dramatic increase in other forms of malnutrition characterized by obesity and the long-term implications of unbalanced dietary and lifestyle practices that result in chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes.

All forms of malnutrition’s broad spectrum are associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and economic costs, particularly in countries where both under- and overnutrition co-exist as is the case in developing countries undergoing rapid transition in nutrition and life-style.

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Alcoholism and eating disorders frequently co–occur and often co–occur in the presence of other psychiatric and personality disorders. Although this co–occurrence suggests the possibility of common or shared factors in the etiology of these two problems, research to date has not established such links. Regardless of the precise meaning of the association, the reality that eating disorders and alcohol use disorders frequently co–occur has important implications for assessment, treatment, and future research.

Numerous studies suggest that eating disorders (EDs) and alcohol and other drug use disorders (referred to throughout this paper as substance use disorders [SUDs]) frequently co–occur and often co–occur in the presence of other psychiatric and personality disorders. This review will consider the extent and nature of such co–occurrences and whether research supports the possibility of common or shared factors in the etiology or maintenance of EDs and SUDs. The reality that EDs and SUDs frequently co–occur has important implications for assessment, treatment, and future research. Although this review will offer implications for clinicians and researchers in both fields, the presentation bias will be toward providing a more detailed discussion of the ED literature for professionals in the alcoholism field.

Eating Disorders and Addiction: Why We Continue to Engage in Self-Destructive Behaviors

A growing body of evidence and research suggests that there are several similarities between eating disorders and addictions, such as drug addiction and alcoholism.

In fact, the American Society of Addiction Medicine now holds a wider definition of addiction to include not only drugs and alcohol, but also “process” addictions, such as food.  This is mostly due to the effect that all of these substances and behaviors have on the brain .

Our brains have special reward centers that are generally stimulated with certain behaviors, such as being praised, taking care of our bodies, exercising, or with being in love.  The reward centers of our brain can also be activated by artificial means through the use of drugs, alcohol, and food abuse.

In a typical situation, stimulation of the reward center of the brain is created by neutral and pleasant activities.  However, this can also be produced through chemical stimulation from drugs of all kinds, alcohol, and eating disordered behaviors.

Since stimulation of the reward center of the brain acts in blocking undesirable feelings and emotions, an addictive cycle is created.  As the brain is saturated with “feel-good” neurotransmitters as a result from stimulation, and unpleasant feelings are blocked, the stimulus, such as drugs, alcohol, or food, becomes a desperately desired substance-thus, addiction and dependency is created.

When the reward center of the brain is stimulated inappropriately, specifically through drugs, alcohol, or abuse of food, it stops functioning the way it was intended to.  Abuse of any substance, whatever form it may be, may create a false sense of temporary happiness or relief, but not without damaging consequences.

Individuals who struggle with an addiction, whether it is in the form of alcoholism, drug abuse, or an eating disorder such as bulimia, may have a personality type that is prone to impulsivity, extremes, and high anxiety/stress and may need more stimulation in order to feel well.  But relief created by stimulation from food, drugs, or alcohol is brief and only creates a greater risk for dependency and addiction-forming habits.

The Relationship Between Alcohol and Eating Disorders

There is a close link between alcohol and eating disorders. Alcohol is commonly presumed to disinhibit food consumption, i.e. cause individuals to consume larger amounts of food; however, this is not always the case, especially in those with dual diagnosis.

Research has shown that alcohol use disorders frequently co-occur with eating disorders, as alcohol is often used as for emotional regulation or as a part of impulsive behavior in those suffering from unhealthy eating conditions. Patterns of co-occurrence vary based on eating disorder subtypes, of which the American Psychiatric Association formally identifies four: anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and eating disorder not otherwise specified.

Eating disorders most frequently develop during adolescence or early adulthood but can occur much later into adulthood as well. Individuals with eating disorders and alcohol use disorders often exhibit the same self-destructive personality profile, which is characterized by anxious, perfectionist traits and impulsive, dramatic dispositions. These qualities suggest that individuals with eating disorders often turn to alcohol use/abuse as a way of coping with everyday problems and stress caused by their eating disorder. Eating disorders are often categorized as addictive disorders and the majority of those that suffer from one have an addictive personality. Addictive personalities are predisposed to both eating disorders and alcohol abuse, increasing the likelihood that the two co-occur.

Research has shown that eating disorder patients who abuse substances demonstrate worse symptoms and poorer outcomes than those with eating disorders alone, including: increased general medical complications and psychiatric conditions, longer recovery times, poorer functional outcomes, and higher relapse rates.

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Anorexia Nervosa and Alcohol Use Disorder

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain a healthy body weight for height and age, an intense fear of becoming fat, and malnutrition. Anorexia is divided into two subtypes: a restricting type that is characterized by strict, extreme dieting and a binge eating/purging type that is marked by episodes of self-induced binge eating and/or purging by means of vomiting or diuretics. People that suffer from anorexia have a severely distorted body image, in which they see themselves as overweight despite being excessively thin and will often deny the seriousness of their unhealthy weight. Anorexia affects people of all ages, although the typical age group for onset anorexia ranges from 14 to 18 years of age. The disorder occurs disproportionately in women and has a high relapse rate. In severe cases, medical complications or even death due to starvation can occur.

Warning Signs and Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa:

• Dramatic weight loss
• Preoccupation with weight, food, calories, fat grams, and dieting
• Dizziness
• Frequent commenting about being “fat” or overweight despite weight loss
• Has a strong need for control
• Consistent excuses to avoid mealtimes or situations involving food
• Fainting
• Withdrawing from usual friends and activities
• Isolation and secretiveness

While anorexia has lower rates of co-occurring substance abuse compared to bulimia and binge eating disorder, most individuals suffering from both anorexia and an alcohol use disorder utilize alcohol to suppress their appetites. Drinking on an empty stomach is particularly dangerous as it increases the risk of alcohol poisoning, memory loss, and alcohol-related injuries.

Bulimia Nervosa and Alcohol Use Disorder

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating (consuming large amounts of food in a small period of time plus a sense of lack of control while eating), and then purging to counteract the effects of binge eating. People that suffer from bulimia routinely use extreme methods of weight control in effort to compensate for binging, including:

• Vomiting
• Abuse of laxatives, diet pills, or diuretics
• Severe dieting or fasting
• Vigorous exercise

In order to be diagnosed with bulimia nervosa, an individual has to have had engaged in both binging and inappropriate purging at least twice a week for the past 3 months. Those with bulimia and an alcohol use disorder frequently binge both food and alcohol, and then purge both as well. Binge drinking is a dangerous act where the drinker consumes excess amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. Adolescent bulimics that also abuse alcohol have an increased likelihood to participate in high-risk behaviors such as attempted suicide, theft, and unprotected sex.

Binge Eating Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder

Formally categorized as an example of eating disorder not otherwise specified until recent years, binge eating disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating without the compensatory weight control methods that are utilized in conjunction with bulimia nervosa. Binge eaters often experience a feeling of loss of control while binging and then extreme shame or guilt after a binge. To be diagnosed with binge eating disorder, an individual must binge eat an average of 2 days per week over a 6-month period.

Unlike anorexia and bulimia, binge eating disorder is not uncommon in males and is most frequently seen in adults. Binge eating disorder presents an increased risk for obesity and general medical complications that accompany being overweight. Like those with bulimia, individuals suffering from binge eating disorder often binge both food and alcohol; however, they do not purge the alcohol after like bulimics do. Because many with binge eating disorder are overweight, they must also consume larger amounts of alcohol to feel its effects, increasing alcohol-related health risks such as cirrhosis and other liver diseases.

Treatment for Addiction to Alcohol and Eating Disorders

Multiple studies have found that during treatment, co-occurring eating disorders and alcohol use disorders should be addressed simultaneously using a multi-disciplinary approach. Cognitive behavioral therapy and dialectical behavioral therapy are considered to be the most promising approaches for treatment of the disorders.

Dialectal behavioral therapy includes:

• Focus on awareness of problems and choices
• Mood regulation techniques
• Coping skills
• Impulse control practices

Some opioids, such as naltrexone, have also proved to be useful in treating both alcohol and eating disorders. In addition to therapy, dietary education and planning should be addressed in conjunction with alcohol addiction as it is crucial for eating disorder recovery. Depending on the severity of the co-occurring disorders, medical stabilization, hospitalization, or inpatient treatment may be necessary.

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Immune system disorder, any of various failures in the body’s defense mechanisms against infectious organisms. Disorders of immunity include immune deficiency diseases, such as AIDS, that arise because of a diminution of some aspect of the immune response. Other types of immune disorders, such as allergies and autoimmune disorders, are caused when the body develops an inappropriate response to a substance—either to a normally harmless foreign substance found in the environment, in the case of allergies, or to a component of the body, in the case of autoimmune diseases. Lymphocytes (white blood cells of the immune system) can become cancerous and give rise to tumours called leukemias, lymphomas, and myelomas.

T cell infected with HIVFalse-colour scanning electron micrograph of a T cell infected with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the agent that causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

This article discusses various immune deficiencies, allergies, autoimmune disorders, and lymphocyte cancers. For additional information on leukemias, lymphomas, and myelomas, see the article cancer. A discussion of how the immune system works to prevent disease is found in the article immune system.

Immune deficiencies

Immune deficiency disorders result from defects that occur in immune mechanisms. The defects arise in the components of the immune system, such as the white blood cells involved in immune responses (T and B lymphocytes and scavenger cells) and the complement proteins, for a number of reasons. Some deficiencies are hereditary and result from genetic mutations that are passed from parent to child. Others are caused by developmental defects that occur in the womb. In some cases immune deficiencies result from damage inflicted by infectious agents. In others drugs used to treat certain conditions, or even the diseases themselves, can depress the immune system. Poor nutrition also can undermine the immune system. Limited contact with natural environmental factors, particularly with microorganisms found in biodiverse settings, also has been associated with increased risk of allergies, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory diseases.

Hereditary and congenital deficiencies

Immune deficiencies resulting from hereditary and congenital defects are rare, but they can affect all major aspects of the immune system. Luckily many of those conditions can be treated. In the rare hereditary disorder called X-linked infantile agammaglobulinemia, which affects only males, B lymphocytes are unable to secrete all classes of immunoglobulins. (An immunoglobulin is a type of protein, also called an antibody, that is produced by B cells in response to the presence of a foreign substance called an antigen.) The disease can be treated by periodic injections of large amounts of immunoglobulin G (IgG). The congenital, but not hereditary, T-cell deficiency disease called DiGeorge syndrome arises from a developmental defect occurring in the fetus that results in the defective development of the thymus. Consequently the infant has either no mature T cells or very few. In the most severe cases—i.e., when no thymus has developed—treatment of DiGeorge syndrome consists of transplantation of a fetal thymus into the infant. The group of disorders called severe combined immunodeficiency diseases result from a failure of precursor cells to differentiate into T or B cells. Bone marrow transplantation can successfully treat some of those diseases. The immune disorder called chronic granulomatous disease results from an inherited defect that prevents phagocytic cells from producing enzymes needed to break down ingested pathogens. Treatments include administration of a wide spectrum of antibiotics. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content.

Deficiencies caused by infection

Damage to lymphocytes that is inflicted by viruses is common but usually transient. During infectious mononucleosis, for example, the Epstein-Barr virus infects B cells, causing them to express viral antigens. T cells that react against these antigens then attack the B cells, and a temporary deficiency in the production of new antibodies lasts until the overt viral infection has been overcome. Because antibodies already present in the blood are slowly broken down, failure to make new ones is important only if the infection persists for a long time, as it does occasionally. A much more serious viral infection is that caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is responsible for the fatal immune deficiency disease AIDS. HIV selectively infects helper T cells and prevents them from producing cytokines and from functioning in cell-mediated immunity. Persons with AIDS may be unable to overcome infections by a variety of microbes that are easily disposed of by persons uninfected with HIV. Severe infections by certain parasites, such as trypanosomes, also cause immune deficiency, as do some forms of cancer, but it is uncertain how that comes about. For example, Hodgkin disease, which attacks the lymphatic system, makes the patient more susceptible to infection.

Deficiencies caused by drug therapy

In countries with advanced medical services, immune deficiency often results from the use of powerful drugs to treat cancers. The drugs work by inhibiting the multiplication of rapidly dividing cells. Although the drugs act selectively on cancer cells, they also can interfere with the generation and multiplication of cells involved in immune responses. Prolonged or intensive treatment with such drugs impairs immune responses to some degree. Although the immune impairment is reversible, the physician must seek a balance between intentional damage to the cancer cells and unintentional damage to the immune system.

Medically induced suppression of the immune system also occurs when powerful drugs, which are designed to interfere with the development of T and B cells, are used to prevent the rejection of organ or bone marrow transplants or to damp down serious autoimmune responses. Although use of such drugs has greatly improved the success of transplants, it also leaves patients highly susceptible to microbial infections. Fortunately, most of those infections can be treated with antibiotics, but the immunosuppressive drugs have to be used with great care and for as short a period as possible.

Nutrition and Immunity

During the flu season or times of illness, people often seek special foods or vitamin supplements that are believed to boost immunity. Vitamin C and foods like citrus fruits, chicken soup, and tea with honey are popular examples. Yet the design of our immune system is complex and influenced by an ideal balance of many factors, not just diet, and especially not by any one specific food or nutrient. However, a balanced diet consisting of a range of vitamins and minerals, combined with healthy lifestyle factors like adequate sleep and exercise and low stress, most effectively primes the body to fight infection and disease.

What Is Our Immune System?

On a daily basis, we are constantly exposed to potentially harmful microbes of all sorts. Our immune system, a network of intricate stages and pathways in the body, protects us against these harmful microbes as well as certain diseases. It recognizes foreign invaders like bacteria, viruses, and parasites and takes immediate action. Humans possess two types of immunity: innate and adaptive.

Innate immunity is a first-line defense from pathogens that try to enter our bodies, achieved through protective barriers. These barriers include:

• Skin that keeps out the majority of pathogens
• Mucus that traps pathogens
• Stomach acid that destroys pathogens
• Enzymes in our sweat and tears that help create anti-bacterial compounds
• Immune system cells that attack all foreign cells entering the body

Adaptive or acquired immunity is a system that learns to recognize a pathogen. It is regulated by cells and organs in our body like the spleen, thymus, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. When a foreign substance enters the body, these cells and organs create antibodies and lead to multiplication of immune cells (including different types of white blood cells) that are specific to that harmful substance and attack and destroy it. Our immune system then adapts by remembering the foreign substance so that if it enters again, these antibodies and cells are even more efficient and quick to destroy it.

Other conditions that trigger an immune response

Antigens are substances that the body labels as foreign and harmful, which triggers immune cell activity. Allergens are one type of antigen and include grass pollen, dust, food components, or pet hair. Antigens can cause a hyper-reactive response in which too many white cells are released. People’s sensitivity to antigens varies widely. For example, an allergy to mold triggers symptoms of wheezing and coughing in a sensitive individual but does not trigger a reaction in other people.

Inflammation is an important, normal step in the body’s innate immune response. When pathogens attack healthy cells and tissue, a type of immune cell called mast cells counterattack and release proteins called histamines, which cause inflammation. Inflammation may generate pain, swelling, and a release of fluids to help flush out the pathogens. The histamines also send signals to discharge even more white blood cells to fight pathogens. However, prolonged inflammation can lead to tissue damage and may overwhelm the immune system.

Autoimmune disorders like lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, or type 1 diabetes are partly hereditary and cause hypersensitivity in which immune cells attack and destroy healthy cells.

Immunodeficiency disorders can depress or completely disable the immune system, and may be genetic or acquired. Acquired forms are more common and include AIDS and cancers like leukemia and multiple myeloma. In these cases, the body’s defenses are so reduced that a person becomes highly susceptible to illness from invading pathogens or antigens.

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What factors can depress our immune system?

• Older age: As we age, our internal organs may become less efficient; immune-related organs like the thymus or bone marrow produce less immune cells needed to fight off infections. Aging is sometimes associated with micronutrient deficiencies, which may worsen a declining immune function.
• Environmental toxins (smoke and other particles contributing to air pollution, excessive alcohol): These substances can impair or suppress the normal activity of immune cells.
• Excess weight: Obesity is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation. Fat tissue produces adipocytokines that can promote inflammatory processes. [1] Research is early, but obesity has also been identified as an independent risk factor for the influenza virus, possibly due to the impaired function of T-cells, a type of white blood cell. [2]
• Poor diet: Malnutrition or a diet lacking in one or more nutrients can impair the production and activity of immune cells and antibodies.
• Chronic diseases: Autoimmune and immunodeficiency disorders attack and potentially disable immune cells.
• Chronic mental stress: Stress releases hormones like cortisol that suppresses inflammation (inflammation is initially needed to activate immune cells) and the action of white blood cells.
• Lack of sleep and rest: Sleep is a time of restoration for the body, during which a type of cytokine is released that fights infection; too little sleep lowers the amount of these cytokines and other immune cells.

Does an Immune-Boosting Diet Exist?

Eating enough nutrients as part of a varied diet is required for the health and function of all cells, including immune cells. Certain dietary patterns may better prepare the body for microbial attacks and excess inflammation, but it is unlikely that individual foods offer special protection. Each stage of the body’s immune response relies on the presence of many micronutrients. Examples of nutrients that have been identified as critical for the growth and function of immune cells include vitamin C, vitamin D, zinc, selenium, iron, and protein (including the amino acid glutamine). [3,4] They are found in a variety of plant and animal foods.

Diets that are limited in variety and lower in nutrients, such as consisting primarily of ultra-processed foods and lacking in minimally processed foods, can negatively affect a healthy immune system. It is also believed that a Western diet high in refined sugar and red meat and low in fruits and vegetables can promote disturbances in healthy intestinal microorganisms, resulting in chronic inflammation of the gut, and associated suppressed immunity. [5]

The microbiome is an internal metropolis of trillions of microorganisms or microbes that live in our bodies, mostly in the intestines. It is an area of intense and active research, as scientists are finding that the microbiome plays a key role in immune function. The gut is a major site of immune activity and the production of antimicrobial proteins. [6,7] The diet plays a large role in determining what kinds of microbes live in our intestines. A high-fiber plant-rich diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes appear to support the growth and maintenance of beneficial microbes. Certain helpful microbes break down fibers into short chain fatty acids, which have been shown to stimulate immune cell activity. These fibers are sometimes called prebiotics because they feed microbes. Therefore, a diet containing probiotic and prebiotic foods may be beneficial. Probiotic foods contain live helpful bacteria, and prebiotic foods contain fiber and oligosaccharides that feed and maintain healthy colonies of those bacteria.

• Probiotic foods include kefir, yogurt with live active cultures, fermented vegetables, sauerkraut, tempeh, kombucha tea, kimchi, and miso.
• Prebiotic foods include garlic, onions, leeks, asparagus, Jerusalem artichokes, dandelion greens, bananas, and seaweed. However, a more general rule is to eat a variety of fruits, vegetables, beans, and whole grains for dietary prebiotics.

Chicken soup as medicine?

A warm bowl of chicken soup is a popular go-to when we’re feeling under the weather. Is there scientific evidence that it aids in healing? The short answer is no; there aren’t any clinical trials that show that chicken soup speeds healing any more than other foods. But when breaking down its ingredients, it does appear a worthwhile remedy to try. First of all, chicken soup is light and easy on the stomach when our appetite isn’t great. Second, it provides fluids and electrolytes to prevent dehydration, which can easily occur with a fever. Lastly, a traditional chicken soup recipe supplies various nutrients involved in the immune system: protein and zinc from the chicken, vitamin A from carrots, vitamin C from celery and onions, and antioxidants in the onions and herbs. This is one tasty and soothing food  to include when not feeling well and doesn’t need a doctor’s prescription.

Do Vitamin or Herbal Supplements Help?

A deficiency of single nutrients can alter the body’s immune response. Animal studies have found that deficiencies in zinc, selenium, iron, copper, folic acid, and vitamins A, B6, C, D, and E can alter immune responses. [8] These nutrients help the immune system in several ways: working as an antioxidant to protect healthy cells, supporting growth and activity of immune cells, and producing antibodies. Epidemiological studies find that those who are poorly nourished are at greater risk of bacterial, viral, and other infections.

Spotlight on vitamin D

Vitamin D’s role in regulating the immune system has led scientists to explore two parallel research paths: Does vitamin D deficiency contribute to the development of multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, and other so-called “autoimmune” diseases, where the body’s immune system attacks its own organs and tissues? And could vitamin D supplements help boost our body’s defenses to fight infectious disease, such as tuberculosis and seasonal flu?

Eating a good quality diet, as depicted by the Healthy Eating Plate, can prevent deficiencies in these nutrients. However, there are certain populations and situations in which one cannot always eat a variety of nutritious foods, or who have increased nutrient needs. In these cases a vitamin and mineral supplement may help to fill nutritional gaps. Studies have shown that vitamin supplementation can improve immune responses in these groups. [8-10] Low-income households, pregnant and lactating women, infants and toddlers, and the critically ill are examples of groups at risk.

The elderly are a particularly high-risk group. The immune response generally declines with increasing age as the number and quality of immune cells decreases. This causes a higher risk of poorer outcomes if the elderly develop chronic or acute diseases. In addition, about one-third of elderly in industrialized countries have nutrient deficiencies. [8] Some reasons include a poorer appetite due to chronic diseases, depression, or loneliness; multiple medications that can interfere with nutrient absorption and appetite; malabsorption due to intestinal issues; and increased nutrient needs due to hypermetabolic states with acute or chronic conditions. Diet variety may also be limited due to budget constraints or lower interest in cooking for one person; poor dentition; mental impairment; or lack of transportation and community resources to obtain healthy food.

A general multivitamin/mineral supplement providing the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) may be used in these cases, unless otherwise directed by one’s physician. Megadose supplements (many times the RDA) do not appear justified, and can sometimes be harmful or even suppress the immune system (e.g., as with zinc). Remember that vitamin supplements should not be considered a substitute for a good diet because no supplements contain all the benefits of healthful foods.

Herbals

Several herbal supplements have been suggested to boost immune function. What does the research say?

• Echinacea: Cell studies have shown that echinacea can destroy influenza viruses, but limited research in humans has been inconclusive in determining echinacea’s active components. Taking echinacea after catching a cold has not been shown to shorten its duration, but taking it while healthy may offer a small chance of protection from catching a cold. [11,12]
• Garlic: The active ingredient in garlic, allicin sativum, is proposed to have antiviral and antimicrobial effects on the common cold, but high-quality clinical trials comparing garlic supplements to placebo are lacking. A Cochrane review identified only one trial of reasonable quality following 146 participants. Those taking the garlic supplement for 3 months had fewer occurrences of the common cold than those taking a placebo, but after contracting the cold virus, both groups had a similar duration of illness. [13] Note that these findings are from a single trial, which needs to be replicated.
• Tea catechins: Cell studies have shown that tea catechins such as those found in green tea can prevent flu and some cold viruses from replicating and can increase immune activity. Human trials are still limited. Two randomized controlled trials found that green tea capsules produced less cold/flu symptoms or incidence of flu than a placebo; however both studies were funded or had author affiliations with tea industries. [14]

8 Steps to Help Support a Healthy Immune System

1. Eat a balanced diet with whole fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, whole grains, and plenty of water. A Mediterranean Diet is one option that includes these types of foods.
2. If a balanced diet is not readily accessible, taking a multivitamin containing the RDA for several nutrients may be used.
3. Don’t smoke (or stop smoking if you do).
4. Drink alcohol in moderation.
5. Perform moderate regular exercise.
6. Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep nightly. Try to keep a sleep schedule, waking up and going to bed around the same time each day. Our body clock, or circadian rhythm, regulates feelings of sleepiness and wakefulness, so having a consistent sleep schedule maintains a balanced circadian rhythm so that we can enter deeper, more restful sleep.
7. Aim to manage stress. This is easier said than done, but try to find some healthy strategies that work well for you and your lifestyle—whether that be exercise, meditation, a particular hobby, or talking to a trusted friend. Another tip is to practice regular, conscious breathing throughout the day and when feelings of stress arise. It doesn’t have to be long—even a few breaths can help. If you’d like some guidance, try this short mindful breathing exercise.
8. Wash hands throughout the day: when coming in from outdoors, before and after preparing and eating food, after using the toilet, after coughing or blowing your nose.

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A diabetes diet simply means eating the healthiest foods in moderate amounts and sticking to regular mealtimes.

A diabetes diet is a healthy-eating plan that’s naturally rich in nutrients and low in fat and calories. Key elements are fruits, vegetables and whole grains. In fact, a diabetes diet is the best eating plan for most everyone.

Why do you need to develop a healthy-eating plan?

If you have diabetes or prediabetes, your doctor will likely recommend that you see a dietitian to help you develop a healthy-eating plan. The plan helps you control your blood sugar (glucose), manage your weight and control heart disease risk factors, such as high blood pressure and high blood fats.

When you eat extra calories and fat, your body creates an undesirable rise in blood glucose. If blood glucose isn’t kept in check, it can lead to serious problems, such as a high blood glucose level (hyperglycemia) that, if persistent, may lead to long-term complications, such as nerve, kidney and heart damage.

You can help keep your blood glucose level in a safe range by making healthy food choices and tracking your eating habits.

For most people with type 2 diabetes, weight loss also can make it easier to control blood glucose and offers a host of other health benefits. If you need to lose weight, a diabetes diet provides a well-organized, nutritious way to reach your goal safely.

What does a diabetes diet involve?

A diabetes diet is based on eating three meals a day at regular times. This helps you better use the insulin that your body produces or gets through a medication.

A registered dietitian can help you put together a diet based on your health goals, tastes and lifestyle. He or she can also talk with you about how to improve your eating habits, such as choosing portion sizes that suit the needs for your size and activity level.

Recommended foods

Make your calories count with these nutritious foods. Choose healthy carbohydrates, fiber-rich foods, fish and “good” fats.

Healthy carbohydrates

During digestion, sugars (simple carbohydrates) and starches (complex carbohydrates) break down into blood glucose. Focus on healthy carbohydrates, such as:

• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Whole grains
• Legumes, such as beans and peas
• Low-fat dairy products, such as milk and cheese

Avoid less healthy carbohydrates, such as foods or drinks with added fats, sugars and sodium.

Fiber-rich foods

Dietary fiber includes all parts of plant foods that your body can’t digest or absorb. Fiber moderates how your body digests and helps control blood sugar levels. Foods high in fiber include:

• Vegetables
• Fruits
• Nuts
• Legumes, such as beans and peas
• Whole grains

Heart-healthy fish

Eat heart-healthy fish at least twice a week. Fish such as salmon, mackerel, tuna and sardines are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which may prevent heart disease.

Avoid fried fish and fish with high levels of mercury, such as king mackerel.

‘Good’ fats

Foods containing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats can help lower your cholesterol levels. These include:

• Avocados
• Nuts
• Canola, olive and peanut oils

But don’t overdo it, as all fats are high in calories.

Figuring out the best foods to eat when you have diabetes can be tough.

That’s because your main goal should be controlling your blood sugar levels.

However, it’s also important to eat foods that help prevent diabetes complications like heart disease.

Your diet can have a major role in preventing and managing diabetes.

Here are the 16 best foods for people living with diabetes, both type 1 and type 2.

1. Fatty Fish

Some people consider fatty fish to be one of the healthiest foods on the planet.

Salmon, sardines, herring, anchovies and mackerel are great sources of the omega-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA, which have major benefits for heart health.

Getting enough of these fats on a regular basis is especially important for people with diabetes, who have an increased risk for heart disease and stroke.

DHA and EPA protect the cells that line your blood vessels, reduce markers of inflammation and may help improve the way your arteries function

Research indicates that people who eat fatty fish regularly have a lower risk for acute coronary syndromes, like heart attacks, and are less likely to die from heart disease

Studies show that eating fatty fish may also help regulate your blood sugar.

A study in 68 adults with overweight and obesity found that participants who consumed fatty fish had significant improvements in post-meal blood sugar levels, compared with participants who consumed lean fish.

Fish is also a great source of high quality protein, which helps you feel full and helps stabilize blood sugar levels.

Summary:

Fatty fish contain omega-3 fats that help reduce inflammation and other risk factors for heart disease and stroke. Plus, it’s a great source of protein, which is important for blood sugar regulation.

2. Leafy Greens

Leafy green vegetables are extremely nutritious and low in calories.

They’re also very low in digestible carbs, or carbs absorbed by the body, so they won’t significantly affect blood sugar levels.

Spinach, kale and other leafy greens are good sources of many vitamins and minerals, including vitamin C.

Some evidence suggests that people with diabetes have lower vitamin C levels than people without diabetes and may have greater vitamin C requirements.

Vitamin C acts as a potent antioxidant and also has anti-inflammatory qualities.

Increasing dietary intake of vitamin C-rich foods can help people with diabetes increase their serum vitamin C levels while reducing inflammation and cellular damage

In addition, leafy greens are good sources of the antioxidants lutein and zeaxanthin.

These antioxidants protect your eyes from macular degeneration and cataracts, which are common diabetes complications .

Summary:

Leafy green vegetables are rich in nutrients like Vitamin C, as well as antioxidants that protect your heart and eye health.

3. Avocados

Avocados have less than 1 gram of sugar, few carbohydrates, a high fiber content, and healthy fats, so you don’t have to worry about them raising your blood sugar levels .

Avocado consumption is also associated with improved overall diet quality and significantly lower body weight and body mass index (BMI) .

This makes them an ideal snack for people with diabetes, especially since obesity increases your chances for developing diabetes.

Avocados may have properties specific to preventing diabetes.

A 2019 study in mice found that avocatin B (AvoB), a fat molecule found only in avocados, inhibits incomplete oxidation in skeletal muscle and the pancreas, which reduces insulin resistance .

More research is needed in humans to establish the connection between avocados and diabetes prevention.

Summary:

Avocados have less than 1 gram of sugar and are associated with improved overall diet quality. Avocados may also have properties specific to diabetes prevention.

4. Eggs

Eggs provide amazing health benefits.

In fact, they’re one of the best foods for keeping you full and satisfied in between meals.

Regular egg consumption may also reduce your heart disease risk in several ways.

Eggs decrease inflammation, improve insulin sensitivity, increase your HDL (good) cholesterol levels and modify the size and shape of your LDL (bad) cholesterol .

A 2019 study found that eating a high-fat, low-carb breakfast of eggs could help individuals with diabetes manage blood sugar levels throughout the day.

Older research has linked egg consumption with heart disease in people with diabetes.

But a more recent review of controlled studies found that consumption of 6 to 12 eggs per week as part of a nutritious diet did not increase heart disease risk factors in those with diabetes.

What’s more, some research suggests that eating eggs may reduce the risk of stroke .

In addition, eggs are a good source of lutein and zeaxanthin, antioxidants that provide protection against eye diseases.

Just be sure to eat whole eggs. The benefits of eggs are primarily due to nutrients found in the yolk rather than the white.

Summary:

Eggs may improve risk factors for heart disease, promote good blood sugar management, protect eye health, and keep you feeling full.

5. Chia Seeds

Chia seeds are a wonderful food for people with diabetes.

They’re extremely high in fiber, yet low in digestible carbs.

In fact, 11 of the 12 grams of carbs in a 28-gram (1-ounce) serving of chia seeds are fiber, which doesn’t raise blood sugar.

The viscous fiber in chia seeds can actually lower your blood sugar levels by slowing down the rate at which food moves through your gut and is absorbed.

Chia seeds may help you achieve a healthy weight because fiber reduces hunger and makes you feel full. Chia seeds may also help maintain glycemic management in individuals with diabetes.

A study involving 77 adults with obesity or overweight and diagnosed with type 2 diabetes found that chia seed consumption supports weight loss and helps maintain good glycemic control.

Additionally, chia seeds have been shown to help reduce blood pressure and inflammatory markers .

Summary:

Chia seeds contain high amounts of fiber, which may help you lose weight. They also help maintain blood glucose levels.

6. Beans

Beans are cheap, nutritious, and super healthy.

Beans are a type of legume rich in B vitamins, beneficial minerals (calcium, potassium, and magnesium), and fiber.

They also have a very low glycemic index, which is important for managing diabetes.

Beans may also help prevent diabetes.

In a study involving more than 3,000 participants at high risk for cardiovascular disease, those who had a higher consumption of legumes had a 35 percent reduced chance of developing type 2 diabetes.

Summary

Beans are cheap, nutritious, and have a low glycemic index, making them a healthy option for individuals with diabetes.

7. Greek Yogurt

Greek yogurt is a great dairy choice for people with diabetes.

Some research suggests that eating certain dairy products like yogurt may improve blood sugar management and reduce heart disease risk factors, perhaps partly due to the probiotics it contain.

Studies also indicate that yogurt consumption may be associated with lower levels of blood glucose and insulin resistance.

Additionally, yogurt may reduce your risk for diabetes.

A long-term study involving health data from over 100,000 participants found that a daily serving of yogurt was linked to an 18 percent lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

It may also help you lose weight, if that’s a personal goal.

Studies show yogurt and other dairy foods may lead to weight loss and improved body composition in people with type 2 diabetes.

The high levels of calcium, protein, and a special type of fat called conjugated linolic acid (CLA) found in yogurt may help reduce your appetite, making it easier to resist unhealthy foods .

What’s more, Greek yogurt contains only 6–8 grams of carbs per serving, which is lower than conventional yogurt.

It’s also higher in protein, which may promote weight loss by reducing appetite and decreasing calorie intake.

Summary:

Yogurt promotes healthy blood sugar levels, reduces risk factors for heart disease and may help with weight management.

8. Nuts

Nuts are delicious and nutritious.

All types of nuts contain fiber and are low in net carbs, although some have more than others.

Here are the amounts of digestible carbs, per 1-ounce (28-gram) serving of nuts, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture:

• Almonds: 2.6 grams
• Brazil nuts: 1.4 grams
• Cashews: 7.7 grams
• Hazelnuts: 2 grams
• Macadamia: 1.5 grams
• Pecans: 1.2 grams
• Pistachios: 5 grams
• Walnuts: 2 grams

Research on a variety of different nuts has shown that regular consumption may reduce inflammation and lower blood sugar, HbA1c (a marker for long-term blood sugar management) and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.

Nuts may also help people with diabetes improve their heart health.

A 2019 study involving over 16,000 participants with type 2 diabetes found that eating tree nuts — such as walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios — lowered their risk of heart disease and death.

Research also indicates that nuts can improve blood glucose levels.

A study in subjects with type 2 diabetes found that consumption of walnut oil daily improved blood glucose levels .

This finding is important because people with type 2 diabetes often have elevated levels of insulin, which are linked to obesity.

Summary:

Nuts are a healthy addition to a balanced diet. They’re high in fiber and help reduce blood sugar and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.

9. Broccoli

Broccoli is one of the most nutritious vegetables around.

A half cup of cooked broccoli contains only 27 calories and 3 grams of digestible carbs, along with important nutrients like vitamin C and magnesium.

What’s more, studies in people with diabetes have found that eating broccoli sprouts may help lower insulin levels and protect against cellular damage.

Broccoli may also help manage your blood sugar levels.

One study found that consuming broccoli sprouts led to a 10 percent reduction in blood glucose in people with diabetes.

This reduction in blood glucose levels is likely due to sulforaphane, a chemical in cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and sprouts.

Additionally, broccoli is another good source of lutein and zeaxanthin. These important antioxidants may help prevent eye diseases.

Summary:

Broccoli is a low calorie, low carb food with high nutrient value. It is loaded with healthy plant compounds that may help protect against various diseases.

10. Extra-Virgin Olive Oil

Extra-virgin olive oil is extremely beneficial for heart health.

It contains oleic acid, a type of monounsaturated fat that has been shown to improve glycemic management, reduce fasting and post-meal triglyceride levels, and have antioxidant properties.

This is important because people with diabetes tend to have trouble managing blood sugar levels and have high triglyceride levels.

Oleic acid may also stimulate the fullness hormone GLP-1.

In a large analysis of 32 studies looking at different types of fat, olive oil was the only one shown to reduce heart disease risk.

Olive oil also contains antioxidants called polyphenols.

Polyphenols reduce inflammation, protect the cells lining your blood vessels, keep your LDL (bad) cholesterol from becoming damaged by oxidation, and decrease blood pressure.

Extra-virgin olive oil is unrefined, so it retains antioxidants and other properties that make it so healthy.

Be sure to choose extra-virgin olive oil from a reputable source, since many olive oils are mixed with cheaper oils like corn and soy.

Summary:

Extra-virgin olive oil contains healthy oleic acid. It has benefits for blood pressure and heart health.

11. Flaxseeds

Flaxseeds are an incredibly healthy food.

Also known as common flax or linseeds, flaxseeds have a high content of heart-healthy omega-3 fats, fiber, and other unique plant compounds.

A portion of their insoluble fiber is made up of lignans, which may help decrease heart disease risk and improve blood sugar management.

A review analyzing 25 randomized clinical trials found a significant association between whole flaxseed supplementation and a reduction in blood glucose.

Flaxseeds may also help lower blood pressure.

A study involving participants with prediabetes found that a daily intake of flaxseed powder lowered blood pressure — but it did not improve glycemic management or insulin resistance.

More research is needed to investigate how flaxseed can help prevent or manage diabetes.

But overall, flaxseed is beneficial for your heart and gut health.

Another study suggested that flaxseed may help lower your risk for stroke and potentially reduce the dosage of medication needed to prevent blood clots.

Plus, flaxseeds are very high in viscous fiber, which improves gut health, insulin sensitivity, and feelings of fullness.

Your body can’t absorb whole flaxseeds, so purchase ground seeds or grind them yourself.

It’s also important to keep flaxseeds tightly covered in the refrigerator to prevent them from going rancid.

Summary:

Flaxseeds may help reduce inflammation, lower heart disease risk, decrease blood sugar levels, and improve insulin sensitivity.

12. Apple cider vinegar

Apple cider vinegar has many health benefits.

Although it’s made from apples, the sugar in the fruit is fermented into acetic acid, and the resulting product contains less than 1 gram of carbs per tablespoon.

According to a meta-analysis of six studies, including 317 patients with type 2 diabetes, apple cider vinegar has beneficial effects on fasting blood sugar levels and HbA1c.

It may also reduce blood sugar response by as much as 20% when consumed with meals containing carbs.

Apple cider vinegar is believed to have many other healthful properties, including antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. But more studies are needed to confirm its health benefits.

To incorporate apple cider vinegar into your diet, begin with 1 teaspoon mixed in a glass of water each day. Increase to a maximum of 2 tablespoons per day.

Summary:

Apple cider vinegar may help improve fasting blood sugar levels, but more research is needed to confirm its health benefits.

13. Strawberries

Strawberries are one of the most nutritious fruits you can eat.

They’re high in antioxidants known as anthocyanins, which give them their red color.

Anthocyanins have been shown to reduce cholesterol and insulin levels after a meal. They also improve blood sugar and heart disease risk factors for people with type 2 diabetes.

Strawberries also contain polyphenols, which are beneficial plant compounds with antioxidant properties.

A 2017 study found that a 6-week consumption of polyphenols from strawberries and cranberries improved insulin sensitivity in adults with overweight and obesity who didn’t have diabetes.

This is important because low insulin sensitivity can cause blood sugar levels to become too high.

A 1-cup serving of strawberries contains about 46 calories and 11 grams of carbs, three of which are fiber.

This serving also provides more than 100% of the RDI for vitamin C, which provides additional anti-inflammatory benefits for heart health.

Summary:

Strawberries are low-sugar fruits that have strong anti-inflammatory properties and may help improve insulin resistance.

14. Garlic

For its tiny size and low calorie count, garlic is incredibly nutritious.

One clove (3 grams) of raw garlic, which is roughly 4 calories, contains

• Manganese: 2% of the Daily Value (DV)
• Vitamin B6: 2% of the DV
• Vitamin C: 1% of the DV
• Selenium: 1% of the DV
• Fiber: 0.06 grams

Research indicates that garlic contributes to improved blood glucose management and can help regulate cholesterol.

Although many studies that determine garlic is a proven healthy option for people living with diabetes include abnormal dietary amounts of garlic, the meta-analysis cited above only included servings from .05–1.5 grams.

For context, one clove of garlic is around 3 grams.

Research also indicates that garlic can help reduce blood pressure and regulate cholesterol levels.

In one study, people with high blood pressure that wasn’t well managed who took aged garlic for 12 weeks averaged a 10-point decrease in blood pressure.

Summary:

Garlic helps lower blood sugar, inflammation, LDL cholesterol and blood pressure in people with diabetes.

15. Squash

Squash, which has many varieties, is one of the healthiest vegetables around.

The dense, filling food is fairly low in calories and has a low glycemic index.

Winter varieties have a hard shell and include acorn, pumpkin, and butternut.

Summer squash has a soft peel that can be eaten. The most common types are zucchini and Italian squash.

Like most vegetables, squash contains beneficial antioxidants. Squash also has less sugar than sweet potatoes, making it a great alternative.

Research shows that pumpkin polysaccharides improved insulin tolerance and decreased levels of serum glucose in rats

Research also indicates that pumpkin seeds can help with glycemic management.

Although there’s very little research on humans, a small study in humans found that squash decreased high blood glucose levels quickly and effectively in people with diabetes who were critically ill .

More studies with humans are needed to confirm the health benefits of squash.

But the health benefits of squash make it a great addition to any meal.

Summary:

Summer and winter squash contain beneficial antioxidants and may help lower blood sugar.

16. Shirataki Noodles

Shirataki noodles are wonderful for diabetes and weight management.

These noodles are high in the fiber glucomannan, which is extracted from konjac root.

This plant is grown in Japan and processed into the shape of noodles or rice known as shirataki.

Glucomannan is a type of viscous fiber, which helps you feel full and satisfied .

What’s more, it’s been shown to reduce blood sugar levels after eating and improve heart disease risk factors in people with diabetes and metabolic syndrome.

In one study, glucomannan significantly reduced levels of fasting blood glucose, serum insulin, and cholesterol in rats with diabetes.

A 3.5-ounce (100-gram) serving of shirataki noodles also contains just 3 grams of digestible carbs and just 10 calories per serving.

However, these noodles are typically packaged with a liquid that has a fishy odor, and you need to rinse them very well before use.

Then, to ensure a noodle-like texture, cook the noodles for several minutes in a skillet over high heat without added fat.

Summary:

The glucomannan in shirataki noodles promotes feelings of fullness and can improve blood sugar management and cholesterol levels.

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Appropriate and healthy feeding of your baby during the first year of life is very important. More growth occurs during the first year than at any other time in your child’s life. For the first few months, breast milk or formula is all that’s needed. As your baby grows, starting a variety of healthy foods at the proper time is important for proper growth and development. And starting good eating habits at this early stage will help set healthy eating patterns for life.

Feeding guide for your child’s first 4 months

Don’t give solid foods unless your baby’s healthcare provider advises you to do so. Solid foods shouldn’t be started for infants younger than age 4 months for the following reasons:

• Breast milk or formula gives your baby all the nutrients that are needed to grow.
• Your baby isn’t physically developed enough to eat solid food from a spoon.
• Feeding your baby solid food too early may lead to overfeeding and being overweight.
• As a general rule, solid foods don’t help babies sleep through the night.

All infants, children, and teens need to take in 400 IU of vitamin D each day to prevent complications from deficiency of this vitamin. This can be through supplements, formula, or cow’s milk. This should start soon after birth. Your baby’s healthcare provider can recommend the proper type and amount of vitamin D supplement for your baby.

Guide for formula feeding (0 to 5 months)

Age	Amount of formula per feeding	Number of breast or formula feedings per 24 Hours	Maximum volume of formula per 24 hours
1 month	2 to 4 ounces	6 to 8 times	24 ounces
2 months	5 to 6 ounces	5 to 6 times	32 ounces
3 to 5 months	6 to 7 ounces	5 to 6 times	32 ounces

Breastfeeding mothers often wonder how they know their baby is getting enough. What goes in must come out, so counting wet diapers is a good way to know your baby is getting plenty. In the first few days of life, your baby should have at least 5 wet diapers daily. If you notice your baby having fewer wet diapers, you should contact your baby’s healthcare provider or lactation consultant for help right away.

Feeding tips for your child

These are some things to consider when feeding your baby:

• When starting solid foods, give your baby 1 new food at a time. Don’t use mixtures like cereal and fruit or meat dinners. Give the new food for 2 to 3 days before adding another new food. This way you can tell what foods your baby may be allergic to or can’t handle.
• Start with small amounts of new solid foods. Try a teaspoon at first and slowly increase to a tablespoon.
• There are no strict rules about what order you should give different foods in. Many people start with an infant cereal and slowly add fruits, vegetables, and proteins.
• Don’t use salt or sugar when making homemade baby foods. Canned foods may contain large amounts of salt and sugar and shouldn’t be used for baby food.
• Don’t feed homemade spinach, beets, green beans, squash, or carrots to babies younger than age 6 months. These foods can have high amounts of nitrates. This raises the risk for a blood disorder (methemoglobinemia) that can interfere with oxygen delivery in the blood.
• Always wash and peel fruits and vegetables and remove seeds or pits. Take special care with fruits and vegetables that come into contact with the ground. They may contain botulism spores that cause food poisoning.
• Cow’s milk shouldn’t be added to the diet until your baby is age 12 months. Cow’s milk doesn’t provide the right nutrients for your baby.
• Fruit juice without sugar can be started when your baby is able to drink from a cup (around age 6 months or older). But, it’s not a necessary part of a healthy infant’s diet and should be limited to a maximum of 4 to 6 ounces daily. Fruit juice is linked to both obesity and malnutrition in children. Whole fruits and vegetables are a much healthier option.
• Feed all foods with a spoon. Your baby needs to learn to eat from a spoon. Don’t use an infant feeder. Only formula and water should go into the bottle.
• Avoid honey in any form for the first year because it can cause a type of botulism.
• Don’t put your baby in bed with a bottle propped in his or her mouth. Propping the bottle is linked to ear infections and choking. Once your baby’s teeth are present, propping the bottle can cause tooth decay.
• Your baby’s healthcare provider can advise you on how to wean your baby off the bottle.
• Avoid the clean plate syndrome. Forcing your child to eat all the food on his or her plate even when he or she isn’t hungry isn’t a good habit. It teaches your child to eat just because the food is there, not because he or she is hungry. Expect a smaller and pickier appetite as your baby’s growth rate slows around age 1.
• Healthy babies usually need little or no extra water. Ask your child’s healthcare provider about giving your baby additional fluids throughout the day. Once your child is taking solids, offering sips of water is usually fine.
• Don’t limit your baby’s food choices to the ones you like. Offering a wide variety of foods early can help lead to good eating habits later.
• Fat and cholesterol shouldn’t be limited in the diets of babies and very young children, unless advised by your baby’s healthcare provider. Children need calories, fat, and cholesterol for healthy growth.

WHO response

WHO is committed to supporting countries with implementation and monitoring of the “Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant and young child nutrition”, endorsed by Member States in May 2012. The plan includes 6 targets, one of which is to increase, by 2025, the rate of exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months up to at least 50%. Activities that will help to achieve this include those outlined in the “Global strategy for infant and young child feeding”, which aims to protect, promote and support appropriate infant and young child feeding.

UNICEF and WHO created the Global Breastfeeding Collective to rally political, legal, financial, and public support for breastfeeding. The Collective brings together implementers and donors from governments, philanthropies, international organizations, and civil society. The Collective’s vision is a world in which all mothers have the technical, financial, emotional, and public support they need to breastfeed.

WHO has formed the Network for Global Monitoring and Support for Implementation of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes and Subsequent Relevant World Health Assembly Resolutions, also known as NetCode. The goal of NetCode is to protect and promote breastfeeding by ensuring that breastmilk substitutes are not marketed inappropriately. Specifically, NetCode is building the capacity of Member States and civil society to strengthen national Code legislation, continuously monitor adherence to the Code, and take action to stop all violations.

In addition, WHO and UNICEF have developed courses for training health workers to provide skilled support to breastfeeding mothers, help them overcome problems, and monitor the growth of children, so they can identify early the risk of undernutrition or overweight/obesity.

WHO provides simple, coherent and feasible guidance to countries for promoting and supporting improved infant feeding by HIV-infected mothers to prevent mother-to-child transmission, good nutrition of the baby, and protect the health of the mother.

problems in feeding children in hospitals

Feeding can become a problem when your child is losing weight or having trouble gaining the right amount of weight for their age. Your child or baby has feeding problems when:

• They can’t eat or drink anything.
• They can’t eat and drink enough of the right things to stay healthy.
• They choose not to eat or drink enough of the right things to stay healthy.

With a baby, you might have breastfeeding problems. Other baby feeding problems might come from your baby not being able to suck, chew, or swallow.

Eating disorders in young children are called feeding disorders. They might also be called toddler eating disorders. (Usually, the term eating disorder is used for pre-teens, teenagers, and adults.)

Sometimes problems with eating get better without treatment. Sometimes your baby or child will need to be seen by a doctor.

With treatment, feeding disorders can get better. Eating can turn into a safer, easier, and happier experience for your child and the rest of the family. Treatment can also help your child become healthier.

Symptoms

Sometimes feeding problems are due to a child not being able to suck, chew, or swallow. This might stem from a physical problem such as a cleft palate or tongue tie. When the cause is less clear, you can look for these signs:

• Not gaining weight well
• Coughing, choking, or gagging when eating or drinking
• Throwing up often
• Choking on food or drink once during a meal and not eating again
• Eating and breathing coordination problems
• Not eating baby food purees by 8 months old
• Not eating table foods by 12 months old
• Not using a cup by 16 months old
• Eating baby foods at 16 months old
• Avoiding foods with a certain texture or from a certain food group (such as fruits and vegetables)
• Eating fewer than 20 kinds of food, especially when they stop eating certain foods and don’t replace them with other foods
• Crying or arching the back at most meals
• Taking more than 30 minutes to eat meals on a regular basis

Other signs within your family can include:

• Arguing with your child about food and feeding
• When feeding your child is difficult for everyone
• Eating problems you have that your child may get from you

When to See a Doctor

If your baby or child is losing weight or having trouble gaining the right amount of weight for their age, you should see a doctor. While some feeding problems can get better without treatment, it is best to make sure that the cause isn’t serious.

If your baby is very uncomfortable when eating or their spit up is green or bloody, you should take them to a doctor right away.

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Causes

Feeding disorders are more than picky eating. Feeding difficulties in children are almost always caused by some other medical problem, including:

• Gastroesophageal reflux [GAS-troh-ih-SOF-oh-JEE-uhl REE-fluhks]. This is a condition where acid from the stomach flows back into the esophagus, the tube that connects your child’s mouth to their stomach.
• Eosinophilic esophagitis [EE-oh-sin-oh-fil-ik EE-sof-a-jai-tis] or inflammation of the esophagus
• Other stomach or intestine problems
• Seizures
• Nervous system problems
• Premature birth
• Sensory system problems
• Autism
• Craniofacial [CRAY-nee-oh-FAY-she-awl] syndromes or abnormalities of the face or head
• Heart or lung problems
• Face and mouth muscle problems
• Problems swallowing certain liquids and food textures

When a baby has a problem with breastfeeding, these medical problems might not be the cause. Breastfeeding doesn’t necessarily come easily for everyone. You may have difficulty with positioning your baby or have sore or tender nipples. Your baby might be spitting up. Some spitting up is normal for all babies. It happens when they eat too fast or swallow air. Remember that it takes practice and patience to find a pattern that works best for you and your baby.

Diagnosis and Tests

Your child will have a clinical feeding evaluation at a therapy center. The feeding specialist (either a speech-language pathologist or an occupational therapist) will talk with you about:

• The foods your child eats
• Where and when your child eats
• Who feeds your child

The therapist will look at your child’s mouth and face. They will watch your child eat or be fed. By watching children eat, the specialist can learn how they move their mouths, think while eating, and control their bodies. They can also see a child’s general ability to eat. If the therapist thinks your child may not be swallowing safely, they will schedule another evaluation.

Treatments

After the feeding evaluations, the therapist may recommend several ways to help your child, including:

• Putting your child in certain safe eating and drinking positions
• Giving your child certain drinks and foods that are safe for them
• Helping your child to eat a wider variety of foods, and drink assorted drinks
• Teaching you and your child safe feeding and drinking skills
• Coordinating services with other medical and therapy professionals

Common feeding problems include gastroesophageal reflux, gastroenteritis, too much food, too little food, and dehydration (fluid loss).

• Some feeding problems resolve without treatment, but others require medical attention or hospitalization.
• Proper nutrition and feeding techniques can alleviate some feeding problems.

Feeding problems in infants and young children are usually minor but sometimes have serious consequences.

Spitting up

Spitting up (burping up) is the effortless return of swallowed formula or breast milk through the mouth or nose after feeding. Almost all infants spit up, because infants cannot sit upright during and after feedings. Also, the valve (sphincter) that separates the esophagus and stomach is immature and does not keep all of the stomach’s contents in place. Spitting up gets worse when an infant eats too fast or swallows air. Spitting up usually stops between the ages of 7 months and 12 months.

Spitting up can be reduced by

• Feeding infants before they get very hungry
• Burping them every 4 to 5 minutes
• Placing them in an upright position during and after feeding
• Making certain the bottle nipple lets out only a few drops with pressure or when the bottle is upside down

Spitting up that seems to cause an infant discomfort, interferes with feeding and growth, or persists into early childhood is called gastroesophageal reflux and may require medical attention. If the material that is spit up is green (indicating bile) or bloody or causes any coughing or choking, medical attention is needed immediately.

Vomiting

Vomiting is the uncomfortable, forced throwing up of feedings. It is never normal. For a more complete discussion, see Vomiting in Infants and Children.

Vomiting in infants is most often the result of acute viral gastroenteritis. Viral gastroenteritis is an infection of the digestive tract that causes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramps. Vomiting can also be caused by infections elsewhere in the body, such as ear infections or urinary tract infections.

Less commonly, vomiting occurs because of a serious medical disorder. Infants between the ages of 2 weeks and 4 months of age may rarely have forceful (projectile) vomiting after feedings because of a blockage at the stomach outlet (hypertrophic pyloric stenosis). Vomiting can also be caused by life-threatening disorders, such as meningitis (infection around the brain and spinal cord), intestinal blockage, metabolic disorders, and appendicitis.

Most vomiting caused by gastroenteritis stops without treatment. Giving the child fluids and electrolytes (such as sodium and chloride) from solutions available in stores or pharmacies prevents or treats dehydration (fluid loss). A child who is vomiting frequently may tolerate small amounts of solution given more often better than large amounts given less often. Older children can be given popsicles or gelatin, although red versions of these foods can be confused with blood if the child vomits again.

A doctor should see any child with vomiting who

• Has severe abdominal pain
• Is unable to drink and retain fluids
• Has a high fever
• Is lethargic or acting extremely ill or acting very different than usual
• Vomits for more than 12 hours
• Vomits blood or green material (bile)
• Does not urinate in 8 hours

These symptoms may signal dehydration or a more severe condition.

Overfeeding

Overfeeding is giving more nutrition than a child needs for healthy growth. Overfeeding occurs when children are automatically fed as a response to crying, when they are given a bottle as a distraction or activity, or when they are allowed to keep a bottle with them at all times. Overfeeding also occurs when parents reward good behavior with food or expect children to finish their food even if they are not hungry. In the short term, overfeeding causes spitting up and diarrhea. In the long term, overfed children can become obese.

Underfeeding

Underfeeding is giving less nutrition than a child needs for healthy growth. It is one of many causes of failure to thrive and may be related to the child or the caregiver. Underfeeding may result when a fussy or distracted infant does not sit well for feedings or has difficulty sucking or swallowing. Underfeeding can also result from improper feeding techniques and errors in formula preparation (see Formula Feeding). Poverty and poor access to nutritious food are major reasons for underfeeding. Occasionally, abusive parents and parents with mental health disorders purposely withhold food from their children. In infants, underfeeding can result in dehydration and yellowing of the skin (jaundice).

Community social agencies (such as the Women, Infants, and Children [WIC] program) can help parents purchase formula and can teach them proper techniques for formula preparation and feeding. If an infant is so far below expected weight that supervised feedings are necessary, the doctor may admit the child to a hospital for evaluation. If the parents are abusive or neglectful, Child Protective Services may be called.

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It’s defined as having hard, dry bowel movements, or going fewer than three times a week.Chronic constipation is infrequent bowel movements or difficult passage of stools that persists for several weeks or longer.Though occasional constipation is very common, some people experience chronic constipation that can interfere with their ability to go about their daily tasks. Chronic constipation may also cause people to strain excessively in order to have a bowel movement.

It happens most often due to changes in diet or routine, or due to inadequate intake of fiber. You should call your doctor if you have severe pain, blood in your stools, or constipation that lasts longer than three weeks.

Other key features that usually define constipation include:

1. Your stools are dry and hard.
2. Your bowel movement is painful and stools are difficult to pass.
3. You have a feeling that you have not fully emptied your bowl.

causes–

Common causes of constipation include:

1. low-fiber diet, particularly diets high in meat, milk, or cheese
2. dehydration
3. lack of exercise
4. delaying the impulse to have a bowel movement
5. travel or other changes in routine
6. certain medications, such as high calcium antacids and pain medications
7. pregnancy
8. 8.Tiny tears in the skin around the anus (anal fissure)
9. A blockage in the intestines (bowel obstruction)
10. Colon cancer
11. Narrowing of the colon (bowel stricture)
12. Other abdominal cancer that presses on the colon
13. Rectal cancer
14. Rectum bulge through the back wall of the vagina (rectocele)

Fiber-rich foods are generally made from plants. Fiber comes in soluble and insoluble forms. The soluble fiber can dissolve in water and creates a soft, gel-like material as it passes through the digestive system.

insoluble fiber retains most of its structure as it goes through the digestive system. Both forms of fiber join with stool, increasing its weight and size while also softening it. This makes it easier to pass through the rectum.

The colon’s muscles eventually propel the waste out through the rectum to be eliminated. If stool remains in the colon too long, it can become hard and difficult to pass.

Lack of fiber in the diet

People with a high intake of dietary fiber are less likely to experience constipation.

This is because fiber promotes regular bowel movements, especially when a person combines it with proper hydration.

High fiber foods include:

• fruits
• vegetables
• whole grains
• nuts
• lentils, chickpeas, and other legumes

Low fiber foods include:

• high fat foods, such as cheese, meat, and eggs
• highly processed foods, such as white bread
• fast foods, chips, and other premade foods

Learn more about foods that can prevent and treat constipation here.

Physical inactivity

Low levels of physical activity may also lead to constipation.

Some past studies have found that physically fit people, including marathon runners, are less likely to experience constipation than other people, although the exact reasons for this remain unclear.

A study from 2013 notes that increasing mobility might help improve constipation among older adults.

People who spend several days or weeks in bed or sitting in a chair may have a higher risk of constipation.

Some medications

Some medications can also increase the risk of constipation. These include:

Opioid pain relief drugs: These include codeine (present with acetaminophen in Tylenol #3), oxycodone (OxyContin), and hydromorphone (Dilaudid).

Tricyclic antidepressants: These include amitriptyline (Elavil) and imipramine (Tofranil).

Certain anticonvulsants: Examples include phenytoin (Dilantin) and carbamazepine (Tegretol).

Calcium channel blockers: These lower blood pressure, and certain types lower heart rate. They include diltiazem (Cardizem) and nifedipine (Procardia).

Antacids that contain aluminum: These include Amphojel and Basaljel.

Antacids that contain calcium: One example is Tums.

Diuretics: These remove excess fluid from the body. They include hydrochlorothiazide (Hydrodiuril) and furosemide (Lasix).

Iron supplements: Doctors prescribe these to treat iron deficiency anemia.

Irritable bowel syndrome

People with functional intestinal difficulty, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), have a higher risk of constipation than people without the condition.

A person with IBS may experience:

• abdominal pain
• bloating
• distension
• changes in the frequency or consistency of stools

With IBS, constipation can fluctuate over time. When constipation is not present, there may instead be loose stools with diarrhea.

Aging

As people age, the prevalence of constipation tends to increase. Up to 40% of older people in the community and up to 60% of those in institutions may experience constipation.

The exact cause of this remains unclear. It may be that as people age, food takes longer to pass through the digestive tract. Many people also become less mobile, which may also contribute to constipation.

Medical conditions, medications, and a low intake of fiber or water may be other factors that lead to constipation with age.

Changes in routine

When a person travels, for example, their usual routine changes. This can affect the digestive system. In an article from 2008, scientists asked 83 people about the digestive changes they experienced while traveling outside of the United States.

The results showed that 9% of people experienced constipation when they went to another country.

Eating meals, going to bed, and using the bathroom at different times than usual could increase the risk of constipation.

Overuse of laxatives

Some people worry that they do not use the bathroom often enough, and they take laxatives to try to solve this problem. Laxatives can help with bowel movements, but regular use of certain laxatives allows the body to get used to their action.

This may cause a person to continue taking laxatives when they no longer need them. The person may also need higher doses to get the same effect.

In other words, laxatives can be habit forming — especially stimulant laxatives. This means that the more a person depends on laxatives, the greater their risk of constipation when they stop using them.

Overuse of laxatives can also lead to:

• dehydration
• an electrolyte imbalance
• internal organ damage

Some of these complications can become life threatening. For this reason, people should talk to a healthcare professional before they start using laxatives.

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Not using the bathroom when necessary

If a person ignores the urge to have a bowel movement, the urge may gradually go away until they no longer feel the need to go.

However, the longer they delay, the drier and harder the stool will become. This will increase the risk of fecal impaction.

Not drinking enough water

Regularly drinking enough water can help reduce the risk of constipation.

Other suitable fluids include naturally sweetened fruit or vegetable juices and clear soups.

It is important to note that some liquids can increase the risk of dehydration and make constipation worse for some people. For example, those who are prone to constipation should limit their intake of caffeinated sodas, coffee, and alcohol.

Colorectal problems

Some health conditions that affect the colon can impede and restrict the passage of stool, leading to constipation.

Examples of such conditions include:

• cancerous tumors
• a hernia
• scar tissue
• diverticulitis
• colorectal stricture, which is an abnormal narrowing of the colon or rectum
• inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Other conditions

Some other medical conditions can also cause or contribute to constipation.

These include:

Neurological conditions: Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, spinal cord injuries, and chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction can lead to constipation.

Conditions that involve hormonal function, electrolytes, or renal function: These include uremia, diabetes, hypercalcemia, and hypothyroidism.

Intestinal blockage: This can occur if a tumor blocks or squeezes part of the digestive system.

Conditions that affect the digestive system: Constipation can occur with celiac disease, IBD, and other inflammatory conditions.

Cancer treatment: Chemotherapy and opioid pain relief medications, can also trigger constipation.

Problems with the nerves around the colon and rectum

Neurological problems can affect the nerves that cause muscles in the colon and rectum to contract and move stool through the intestines. Causes include:

1. Damage to the nerves that control bodily functions (autonomic neuropathy)
2. Multiple sclerosis
3. Parkinson’s disease
4. Spinal cord injury
5. Stroke

Risk factors

Factors that may increase your risk of chronic constipation include:

1. Being an older adult
2. menstrution
3. Being dehydrated
4. Eating a diet that’s low in fiber
5. Getting little or no physical activity
6. Taking certain medications, including sedatives, opioid pain medications, some antidepressants or medications to lower blood pressure
7. Having a mental health condition such as depression or an eating disorder

Complications

Complications of chronic constipation include:

1. Swollen veins in your anus (hemorrhoids). Straining to have a bowel movement may cause swelling in the veins in and around your anus.
2. Torn skin in your anus (anal fissure). A large or hard stool can cause tiny tears in the anus.
3. Stool that can’t be expelled (fecal impaction). Chronic constipation may cause an accumulation of hardened stool that gets stuck in your intestines.
4. Intestine that protrudes from the anus (rectal prolapse). Straining to have a bowel movement can cause a small amount of the rectum to stretch and protrude from the anus.

Marker study–

A marker study, also called a colorectal transit study, is used to test how food is moving through your colon. For this test, you’ll swallow a pill that contains tiny markers that will show up on an X-ray.

Anorectal manometry

An anorectal manometry is a test used to evaluate anal sphincter muscle function. For this test, your doctor will insert a thin tube with a balloon tip into your anus.

Barium enema X-ray

A barium enema X-ray is a type of test used to examine the colon. For this test, you’ll drink a special liquid the night before the test to clean out the bowel.

Colonoscopy

A colonoscopy is another type of test doctors use to examine the colon. In this test, your doctor will examine your colon using a tube that’s outfitted with a camera and light source (colonoscope).

Symptoms

Constipation makes it difficult to pass stools.

The main symptoms of constipation are:

• difficulty passing stool
• straining when passing stool
• passing less stool than usual
• lumpy, dry, or hard stool

Other symptoms include:

• pain and cramping in the abdomen
• feeling bloated
• nausea
• a loss of appetite

What does it mean if a person has abdominal pain as well as constipation?

In children and babies

Constipation can sometimes affect children and babies. The following sections discuss this in more detail.

Newborns

If a newborn does not pass meconium, their first solid stool, within 48 hours of birth, they may have Hirschsprung’s disease.

This is a condition wherein certain nerve cells are missing from part of the large intestine. Stool is unable to move forward in the affected area of colon, which causes a backup.

A healthcare provider will usually be able to spot these symptoms and recommend surgery as treatment. In most cases, the outlook is good for babies born with this condition.

Young infants

If a breastfed baby goes a week without passing stool, this is not usually a problem. Breastfed infants do not usually experience constipation.

However, if parents or caregivers have concerns about a baby’s bowel movements, they can seek medical advice.

More commonly, constipation can occur:

• when an infant first starts taking formula feeds
• during weaning
• during potty training
• at times of stress

If an infant experiences constipation while consuming formula feed, they may benefit from drinking extra water between feeds. Parents and caregivers should not add extra water to the formula, however.

If the infant is already consuming solids, they may need more fiber and water in their diet. Fruit can be a good option. However, do not force children to eat if they do not want to, as this can cause or add to stress.

During potty training, constipation can occur if a child feels stressed, especially if other changes are occurring, such as starting at nursery. Giving the child plenty of time to empty their bowels may help.

Apart from not passing stool, some symptoms that indicate constipation in children include:

• a firm or distended abdomen
• low energy
• reduced appetite
• irritability

In pregnancy

According to one source, around 40% of women experience constipation during pregnancy.

This can result from:

• hormonal changes
• physical changes, such as when the uterus presses on the intestines
• dietary or physical activity changes

Many women take iron supplements during pregnancy. These can contribute to constipation and other changes in bowel habits.

Treatment

Constipation usually resolves itself without the need for prescription treatment. In most cases, making lifestyle changes — such as getting more exercise, eating more fiber, and drinking more water — can help.

Allowing time for defecation, without stress or interruption, may also help. People should also not ignore the urge to have a bowel movement.

Laxatives can improve symptoms in the short-term, but people should use them with care and only when necessary. This is because some laxatives can have severe adverse effects.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) urge people to check with their doctor before using them, and to follow the instructions on the label with care.

If constipation persists, people should see a doctor. They may need stronger medication. The doctor may also test for any underlying conditions.

Keeping a record of bowel movements, stool characteristics, and dietary and other factors may help find a suitable treatment.

Laxatives

Some laxatives are available over the counter, while others are available with a prescription.

People should only consider using laxatives if making lifestyle changes has not helped. It is best to check with a doctor before use.

The following are some laxatives and stool softeners that may help ease constipation:

Fiber supplements: Also known as bulk-forming laxatives, these may be the safest option. FiberCon is one example. People should take these with plenty of water. Bulk-forming laxatives are available from pharmacies and to purchase online.

Stimulants: These cause the muscles in the intestines to contract rhythmically. Senokot is one example.

Lubricants: These help the stool move smoothly through the colon. One example is mineral oil (Fleet).

Stool softeners: These moisten the stool. Examples include Colace and Surfak.

Osmotics: These draw water into the colon to hydrate the stool and ease movement. Saline laxatives are a type of osmotic.

Neuromuscular agents: These include opioid antagonists and 5-HT4 agonists. They work at specific receptors to regulate movement through the gut.

How do stool softeners compare with other laxatives?

Other treatment options

If laxatives do not work, a doctor may need to remove impacted stool manually or surgically.

If constipation does not respond to treatment or if there are other symptoms, a doctor may suggest an abdominal imaging study — such as a CT scan, MRI scan, or X-ray — to see if there is a blockage due to an underlying disease process in the gut.

If there is, a person may need specific prescription medications or surgery to resolve it. Depending on the results of the tests and the person’s response to medical or surgical therapy, they may also need further treatment.

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Obesity is becoming a global epidemic in both children and adults. It is associated with numerous comorbidities such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), type 2 diabetes, hypertension, certain cancers, and sleep apnea/sleep-disordered breathing. In fact, obesity is an independent risk factor for CVD, and CVD risks have also been documented in obese children. Obesity is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality as well as reduced life expectancy. Health service use and medical costs associated with obesity and related diseases have risen dramatically and are expected to continue to rise. Besides an altered metabolic profile, a variety of adaptations/alterations in cardiac structure and function occur in the individual as adipose tissue accumulates in excess amounts, even in the absence of comorbidities. Hence, obesity may affect the heart through its influence on known risk factors such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, glucose intolerance, inflammatory markers, obstructive sleep apnea/hypoventilation, and the prothrombotic state, in addition to as-yet-unrecognized mechanisms. On the whole, overweight and obesity predispose to or are associated with numerous cardiac complications such as coronary heart disease, heart failure, and sudden death because of their impact on the cardiovascular system. The pathophysiology of these entities that are linked to obesity will be discussed. However, the cardiovascular clinical evaluation of obese patients may be limited because of the morphology of the individual. In this statement, we review the available evidence of the impact of obesity on CVD with emphasis on the evaluation of cardiac structure and function in obese patients and the effect of weight loss on the cardiovascular system.

Obesity is becoming a global epidemic, and in the past 10 years in the United States, dramatic increases in obesity have occurred in both children and adults.Historically, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company data that express body fatness as percent ideal body weight have been used, but currently overweight and obesity are classified by body mass index (BMI). BMI (weight in kilograms/height² in meters) is frequently used as a surrogate measure of fatness in children and adults. In adults, overweight is defined as a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 kg/m²; obesity is defined as a BMI ≥30.0 kg/m². shows the classification developed by a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute task force, along with the associated disease risk with increasing BMI. Through the use of the BMI, the epidemic of obesity that began in the 1980s has been tracked through the end of the century. The original alarm was sounded in 1994 by the National Center for Health Statistics when they reported their data from the first 3 years of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The authors observed that from 1988–1994 (NHANES III) to NHANES 1999–2000, the prevalence of overweight in adults increased from 55.9% to 64.5%. During that same period, the prevalence of obesity increased from 22.9% to 30.5%.This sudden, unanticipated jump in the prevalence of obesity led the American Heart Association (AHA) to call for action to curb the consequences of this epidemic. More recently, the AHA has addressed and reviewed a variety of weight loss approaches for the management and treatment of obesity.Beyond an unfavorable risk factor profile, overweight and obesity also affect heart structure and function. Moreover, the cardiovascular clinical evaluation of obese patients may be limited because of the morphology of the individual. This statement reviews the available evidence of the impact of obesity on cardiovascular disease (CVD), with emphasis on the evaluation of cardiac structure and function in obese patients and the effect of weight loss on the cardiovascular system.

Diet and heart health

The role of diet is crucial in the development and prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Diet is a key modifiable risk factor for CVD.

Change in eating habits

• Human beings’ average weight is increasing. The latter half of the 20th century saw major changes to daily diets, moving from plant-based diets to high-fat, animal-based diets
• The obesity epidemic is spreading to low- and middle-income countries as a result of new dietary habits and sedentary ways of life, fuelling chronic diseases and premature mortality

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Components of a healthy diet

• A healthy diet is low in saturated fats, salts and refined carbohydrates and high in fruit and vegetables. As well as this, eating whole grains, at least two servings of fish a week, and nuts can reduce the risk of CVD
• The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends individuals to:
  • Limit energy intake from total fats and shift fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats and towards the elimination of transfatty acids
  • Increase consumption of fruits and vegetables, and whole grains and nuts. Adults should consume at least 500g of fresh fruit and vegetables a day.
  • Limit the intake of free sugars and salt (sodium) consumption from all sources . Recent guidance recommends eating less than 1,500 mg of sodium per day

Overweight and obesity

• Overweight and obesity are classified by an individual’s body mass index (BMI). BMI is measured by dividing a person’s weight by their height squared in metres
• In adults, overweight is defined as a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 kg/m2; obesity is defined as a BMI of 30.0 kg/m2 or greater

Facts & figures: prevalence

• Latest projections from the WHO indicate that globally in 2005 approximately 1.6 billion adults aged 15 and above were overweight; at least 400 million adults were obese
• The WHO further projects that by 2015, approximately 2.3 billion adults will be overweight and more than 700 million will be obese
• Once considered a problem only in high-income countries, overweight and obesity are now dramatically on the rise in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in urban settings

Impact of obesity on heart health

• Obesity is an independent risk factor for CVD
• An overweight person may develop hypertension, type-2 diabetes and musculoskeletal disorder, putting them at high risk of CVD
  • Increased body weight leads to increased risk of developing type-2 diabetes and incidence of hypertension rises. Statistics show that 58 per cent of diabetes mellitus globally and 21 per cent of chronic heart disease are attributable to a BMI above 21
  • Excess fat can also affect an individual’s blood pressure and blood lipid levels and interferes with their ability to use insulin effectively

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Metabolism is the chemical process your body uses to transform the food you eat into the fuel that keeps you alive.

Nutrition (food) consists of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. These substances are broken down by enzymes in your digestive system, and then carried to the cells where they can be used as fuel. Your body either uses these substances immediately, or stores them in the liver, body fat, and muscle tissues for later use.

What is a metabolic disorder?

A metabolic disorder occurs when the metabolism process fails and causes the body to have either too much or too little of the essential substances needed to stay healthy.

Our bodies are very sensitive to errors in metabolism. The body must have amino acids and many types of proteins to perform all of its functions. For example, the brain needs calcium, potassium, and sodium to generate electrical impulses, and lipids (fats and oils) to maintain a healthy nervous system.

Metabolic disorders can take many forms. This includes:

• a missing enzyme or vitamin that’s necessary for an important chemical reaction
• abnormal chemical reactions that hinder metabolic processes
• a disease in the liver, pancreas, endocrine glands, or other organs involved in metabolism
• nutritional deficiencies

To help you create your best meal plan, we’ll send you expert, evidence-based guidance on nutrition and weight loss.

What causes metabolic disorders?

You can develop a metabolic disorder if certain organs — for instance, the pancreas or the liver — stop functioning properly. These kinds of disorders can be a result of genetics, a deficiency in a certain hormone or enzyme, consuming too much of certain foods, or a number of other factors.

There are hundreds of genetic metabolic disorders caused by mutations of single genes. These mutations can be passed down through generations of families. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH)T, certain racial or ethnic groups are more likely to pass on mutated genes for particular inborn disorders. The most common of these are:

• sickle cell anemia in African Americans
• cystic fibrosis in people of European heritage
• maple syrup urine disease in Mennonite communities
• Gaucher’s disease in Jewish people from Eastern Europe
• hemochromatosis in Caucasians in the United States

Types of metabolic disorders

Diabetes is the most common metabolic disease. There are two types of diabetes:

• Type 1, the cause of which is unknown, although there can be a genetic factor.
• Type 2, which can be acquired, or potentially caused by genetic factors as well.

According to the American Diabetes Association, 30.3 million children and adults, or about 9.4 percent of the U.S. population have diabetes.

In type 1 diabetes, the T cells attack and kill beta cells in the pancreas, the cells that produce insulin. Over time, a lack of insulin can cause:

• nerve and kidney damage
• eyesight impairment
• increased risk of heart and vascular disease

Hundreds of inborn errors in metabolism (IEM) have been identified, and most are extremely rare. However, it’s estimated that IEM collectively affects 1 in every 1,000 infants. Many of these disorders can only be treated by limiting dietary intake of the substance or substances the body cannot process.

The more common types of nutritional and metabolic disorders include:

Gaucher’s disease

This condition causes an inability to break down a particular kind of fat, which accumulates in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. This inability can result in pain, bone damage, and even death. It’s treated with enzyme replacement therapy.

Glucose galactose malabsorption

This is a defect in the transport of glucose and galactose across the stomach lining which leads to severe diarrhea and dehydration. Symptoms are controlled by removing lactose, sucrose, and glucose from the diet.

Hereditary hemochromatosis

In this condition, excess iron is deposited in several organs, and can cause:

• liver cirrhosis
• liver cancer
• diabetes
• heart disease

It’s treated by removing blood from the body (phlebotomy) on a regular basis.

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD)

MSUD disrupts the metabolism of certain amino acids, causing rapid degeneration of the neurons. If not treated, it causes death within the first few months after birth. Treatment involves limiting the dietary intake of branched-chain amino acids.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

PKU causes an inability to produce the enzyme, phenylalanine hydroxylase, resulting in organ damage, mental retardation, and unusual posture. It’s treated by limiting the dietary intake of certain forms of protein.

ymptoms of inherited metabolic disorders

Symptoms of metabolic disorders that run in families include:

• Body fluids that have a maple smell
• Bone abnormalities such as osteoporosis (thinning and weakening of the bones)
• Difficulty with memory, thinking, talking, comprehension, writing or reading
• Enlarged liver, heart, kidney or spleen
• Failure to thrive in infants and children
• Frequent infections
• Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
• Loss of vision or changes in vision
• Muscle twitching, spasms or seizures
• Muscle weakness
• Paralysis

Symptoms of acquired metabolic disorders

Symptoms of metabolic disorders that you can acquire during your lifetime include:

• Chronic or persistent diarrhea
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Irritability and mood changes
• Muscle cramping
• Nausea with or without vomiting
• Rapid breathing (tachypnea) or shortness of breath

Serious symptoms that might indicate a life-threatening condition

In some cases, metabolic disorders can be life threatening. Seek immediate medical care (call 911) if you, or someone you are with, have any of these life-threatening symptoms including:

• Bluish coloration of the lips or fingernails
• Change in mental status or sudden behavior change, such as confusion, delirium, lethargy, hallucinations and delusions
• Respiratory or breathing problems, such as shortness of breath, difficulty breathing, labored breathing, wheezing, not breathing, choking
• Seizure

What are the risk factors for metabolic disorders?

A number of factors increase the risk of developing metabolic disorders. Not all people with risk factors will get metabolic disorders. Risk factors for metabolic disorders include:

• Certain chronic medical conditions, such as lung or kidney disease (includes any type of kidney problem, such as kidney stones, kidney failure and kidney anomalies)
• Family history of genetic metabolic disorder
• HIV/AIDS

How are metabolic disorders treated?

Treatment for metabolic disorders begins with seeking medical care from your health care provider. The treatment approach for metabolic disorders depends on the specific disorder. Inborn errors of metabolism (inherited metabolic disorders) are often treated with nutritional counseling and support, periodic assessment, physical therapy, and other supportive care options. Acquired metabolic disorder treatment will include normalizing the metabolic balance by both reversing the cause and administering medications.

Treatment options for inherited metabolic disorders

Multiple treatment options are available for inherited metabolic disorders. Examples include:

• Bone marrow transplantation
• Enzyme replacement therapy in selected patients
• Gene therapy in selected patients
• Medications to reduce symptoms, such as pain or low blood sugar
• Mineral supplementation
• Nutritional counseling
• Physical therapy
• Surgery to relieve pain or symptoms
• Vitamin supplementation

What are the potential complications of metabolic disorders?

Complications of untreated metabolic disorders can be serious, even life threatening in some cases. You can help minimize your risk of serious complications by following the treatment plan you and your health care professional design specifically for you. Complications of metabolic disorders include:

• Organ failure or dysfunction
• Seizures and tremors
• Unconsciousness and coma