Medicurio

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“Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

But most of us think health is only being free from illness. It is not entirely right. A person should be healthy both in terms of physical, mental, and social well-being and not a mere absence of any disease. Then we can say it is a good nutritional status.

There is a strong relationship between nutrition and health, and you’ll want to make the right food choices to ensure you live the best life possible. Discover the many important connections between nutrition and a healthy lifestyle, and how it plays a major role in your life. Before going into details, let’s what is nutrition.

What is Nutrition?

Nutrition is the intake of food in relation to the dietary needs of the body. Good nutrition (a sufficient and balanced diet combined with regular physical exercise) is a fundamental element of good health.

According to WHO,

“Nutrition is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs. Good nutrition – an adequate, well-balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a cornerstone of good health. Poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity, increased susceptibility to disease, impaired physical and mental development, and reduced productivity.”

Hippocrates, the Father of medicine says,

“Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.”

So, good nutrition indicates the right amount of nutrients for proper utilization for achieving the highest level of health.

There are six different types of nutrients in foods. They are,

1. Proteins,
2. Carbohydrates,
3. Fats,
4. Vitamins,
5. Minerals
6. And Water.

For a healthy body, we require all these six important nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are majorly required for bodybuilding and energy; the minerals and vitamins are required for the protection of our body and they give us resistance against the different illnesses and also they required for carrying out the metabolic actions in the body and keeping the body healthy. And water is a very important nutrient which keeps our body healthy.

Relationship between Nutrition and Health

Good nutrition is the key to leading a healthy lifestyle. We can improve our health if we take care of ourselves. Eating a balanced diet is an important part of good health. We should eat foods that contain six important nutrients which include whole grains, a source of protein, dairy, fruits, vegetables, and water.

Nutrition plays a role in promoting good health. So we have to be careful about the foods and nutrients which should be emphasized in our diets, and how they can enhance our health. Diets full of fruits and veggies, whole grains, nuts, and lean meats have proven health benefits like lowering blood pressure, improving glucose control in diabetics, weight loss, improving arthritis, and reducing the risk of cancer and cardiovascular events and so on.

We should also learn about the specific nutrients that can impact health. For example,

• Plant pigments found in bright orange and red fruits and vegetables, which may prevent and slow the progression of eye diseases.
• Calcium helps to keep bones strong.
• Vitamin B plays a role in maintaining brain health.
• Flavonoids from many plants may improve the health of our cardiovascular systems.

It’s not surprising that physical activity can help to maintain a healthy weight, improve mood and sleep habits, and boost overall health. And it’s clear that a well-balanced diet, full of nutritious foods is crucial to good health.

We Are What We Eat

Surely you have heard this expression many times: “We are what we eat.”

What goes through your head when you listen to it? They are words with a much more important meaning than is usually thought. We are going to see everything that hides behind this certainty and to pay special attention to everything that it wants to tell us.

Since we are born we need three things to live: oxygen, water, and food”. Food “is fuel” through which we obtain energy and compounds that help us to repair the body.

Once the food is eaten, the feeding ends, and nutrition begins, which we can define as the unconscious and involuntary process by which the body receives and transforms the nutritional substances that we give it through what we eat.

The relationship between food nutrition and health is immense. Food gives us energy and nutrients to live with.

Today there is no doubt that what we eat is key to achieving and maintaining optimal body function, preserving or restoring health, and protecting ourselves against future illnesses.

Also, our eating behavior influences the decisions of those around us. The clearest example is that of the little ones, who will imitate and acquire the eating habits that are followed at home.

In turn, the entire society influences what we eat: food policies, nutritional education campaigns, collective consumption, gastronomic offer, food availability, the food industry, the geographical environment, advertising, and marketing, fashion and we could continue citing countless conditions.

Besides, many pathologies also depend on whose cause is influenced by diet, such as cancer. According to results from over 80,000 new cases of cancer, it is estimated that “30% of cancer is caused by a poor diet”. It can also affect other aspects such as functional brain development or aging.

To avoid this, the first thing we have to follow is “to control the adequate amount of food, and the second is a healthy style of food.” The base of the diet is fruits and vegetables.

We should eat about three fruits a day, “that can mean about 90 thousand fruits in a lifetime”. To this we add vegetables and greens twice a day, fish five times a week, meat four times (one of them red), potatoes twice a week, another two pasta and the same rice.

What do we gain in return? Not being overweight, with which you have already achieved enough because there is no overload in organs such as the heart or liver; slower and healthier aging; in addition to circumstances as obvious as sleep, because with a good diet you sleep better. Even the state of mind, because when you eat better the functionality of the brain is also better.

“We Are What We Eat”, this expression contains a whole motto of life.

Why Good Nutrition is Important for Health?

Good and balanced nutrition is very beneficial for us. Good nutrition means a portion of food that can maintain the required energy balance in our body. If we do not have the energy, we cannot perform well. For good and optimum health, we should be careful about what we are eating, how we are eating, how much we are eating, and what time we are eating.

We have a few limiting factors in our body and by consuming good nutrition we can remove them. Among the limiting factors which come first in our mind is Genetics.

We all have different genes and we have to accept that each and every one is not genetically blessed. For example, some people lose body weight very fast and some lose very slowly; some people get good muscles very fast but some are not. This is a genetic factor.

But if we add good nutrition to our food, it allows us to break up this fact and even we can achieve good health. That is why Nutrition is known as a Promoter of Good Health.

Nutrition as a Weapon of Prevention

Numerous studies show that diet is a fundamental pillar in the prevention of diseases. It is one of the most studied factors in chronic diseases, although we cannot forget the determining role of nutrition in the correct functioning of the immune system and greater resistance in acute infectious processes.

Chronic diseases have a long duration and are generally slow in progression. Diabetes, heart attacks, heart disease, cancer, and respiratory diseases are the main causes of mortality in the world, accounting for 63% of deaths.

In 2008, 36 million people died of chronic disease. These are diseases clearly linked to our lifestyle, so we must attend to our way of life in a more committed and conscious way.

The human organism has a magnificent resilience capacity and adapts to the environment that surrounds it to live in harmony, it can tolerate a large number of pathogens or toxic agents if the immune system is strong. However, undernutrition or overnutrition can upset this balance.

We are in an overfed and paradoxically malnourished society. Currently, the food market is very large and offers us various alternatives to consume, therefore, it is more difficult to know what we eat given the reality that most processed foods come with a high content of simple sugars, saturated fat, and sodium Mainly, which has caused various diseases closely associated with the cardiovascular system, increasing the risk of suffering from them.

That is why it is important to know food, since through this we can prevent diseases in the future and, in addition, provide our body with the energy and nutrients necessary to function effectively in our day to day life.

If you are what you eat, would you be a healthy person? Preventing deadly diseases is available to anyone who wants to avoid them. Nutrition is a tool that will take care of your health easily. While it is unlikely that you can prevent or control viruses or bacteria that enter your body, you can provide a strong immune system to help prevent them.

Eating right also prevents obesity and is one of the main reasons for the disease. What few know is that it leads to other conditions such as type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, stroke, heart disease; among others.

So make a plan what you eat, avoiding eating foods loaded with sugar, fat, and calories; the culprits of adding extra weight to your body, weakening your bones, and making your organs work harder. This automatically puts you at a higher risk for future health problems.

Weapon for prevention, nutrition is probably one of the most valid and effective tools we have to protect our health. Let’s make food a way to enjoy life in a healthy way.

The body requires a certain number of calories simply to carry out its basic metabolic functions such as respiration and maintenance of body temperature. Additional calories are needed to support physical activity, fight infection, and rebuild damaged tissues. However, if a person does not take in enough calories, fat is broken down to provide fuel. Once the fat is consumed or if an individual’s metabolism is disrupted due to illness, lean body mass (muscle and organs) is then used for fuel and raw materials.

Iron and Cognitive Function

Iron deficiency is the single most significant nutrient deficiency, affecting 15% of the world population and causing anemia in 40% to 50% of children (Pollit, 1993). Iron is essential for neurologic activity, including synthesis of dopamine, serotonin, catecholamine, and, possibly, myelin formation (Beard et al., 1993). Iron-deficient children have decreased attentiveness, narrow attention span, and perceptual restrictions (Pollitt, 1993).

Good nutrition for Children

Good nutrition helps for all children to grow physically, gives them energy they need to develop in both body and mind, and protects them from illness (Figure 1). Good nutrition is also important for children living with HIV, as these children need more food to stay healthy than other children their age. Medicines for HIV also work better when children have enough to eat (McCallister et al., 2019).

Childhood undernutrition remained stubbornly prevalent. The root causes of undernutrition lay in the lack of household economic resources, particularly women’s lack of access to income. Nutritionists define undernutrition as the inadequate daily intake of diet, measured in calorie intake while malnutrition as imbalance or inadequately in the quality of the diet (Boyd, 1950). If such inadequate calorie intake is allowed to take place over a continuous span of time, the result will be lack of sufficient physical development and less activity on the part of children. For adults, undernutrition could result in reduction of the body weight or physical activity or both. For the developing regions as a whole, the two indicators of Millennium Development Goals (MDG 1c) the prevalence of undernourishment and the proportion of underweight children under 5 years of age – have both declined (FAO, IFAD and WFP, 2015; IFPRI, 2016). In some regions, including western Africa, south-eastern Asia and South America, undernourishment declined faster than the rate for child underweight, suggesting room for improving the quality of diets, hygiene conditions and access to clean water, particularly for poorer population groups.

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Malnutrition causes diarrhea – diarrhea causes malnutrition

For all children, not having enough to eat (malnutrition) and being ill each makes the other worse. When children are ill, they cannot make use of all the nutrition from the food they eat, and they often eat less, making them even weaker and more likely to stay ill or become ill again soon and eventually may lead to death (Figure 2). Malnutrition lowers resistance to infection, including infection by parasites. As a result, the malnourished people are heavily burdened by a herd of parasites. Malnourished children grow slowly and learn poorly in school, or are too weak to go to school. Moreover, poor nutrition can lead to poor health, which can lead to poor performance at school, and poor schools can lead to unemployment.

. Malnutrition harms the whole body, including the gut. The gut, damaged from malnutrition, cannot absorb food well. This results from constant passing of stool which drains the body of nutrients and weakens the child. Therefore malnutrition can be caused by not having enough food, not having enough different kinds of food, or because an illness such as diarrhea makes it hard to absorb food (McCallister et al., 2019). Malnutrition is very dangerous for children with HIV because it makes their weak immune systems even weaker. Thus any child who is malnourished gets other infections much more easily.

Nutrition and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Malnutrition is a major concern for individuals with COPD because they have increased energy expenditure, decreased energy intake, and impaired oxygenation (Engelen et al., 1994; Pezza et al., 1994; Palange et al., 1995). These authors described malnutrition as adversely affects exercise tolerance by limiting skeletal and respiratory muscle strength and aerobic capacity, limits surfactant production, reduces cell-mediated immune responses, and reduces protein synthesis.

Malabsorption

Various bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic infections can interfere with proper nutrition. Several opportunistic infections cause vomiting and diarrhea, which can lead to poor absorption or loss of nutrients. HIV or associated infections can damage the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, which can interfere with absorption of nutrients. Some HIV positive people experience fat malabsorption, which can impair absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

Avoid unhealthy foods

Local, natural food, the food that our grandparents ate, is better for us than any processed, or junk, food (Conant and Fadem, 2012). Processed foods usually contain a lot of chemicals, salt, and sugar to make them taste good and to addict you to them. They cause health problems such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, obesity, headaches, and digestive problems. For example, a 2012 study in Public Health Nutrition (Sánchez-Villegas, et al., 2012) revealed that those who eat junk food are 51 percent likelier to show signs of depression. And the more junk food, the likelier the brain function is impaired. Sugary foods also damage the teeth. In addition, continued increases in the consumption of animal-source foods, as well as energy-rich, nutrient-poor processed foods, has been linked to the rise in overnutrition and associated non-communicable disease such as obesity (Markovic and Natoli, 2009; Wang and Beydoun, 2009). Foods have immense impact on body, so to be healthy and strong, we not only have to eat healthy, nutritious food, but we must also avoid the unhealthy foods. In developing countries the majority of moderate and severe cases of underweight among children below 2 years are primarily caused by inappropriate weaning practices and a high vulnerability to infectious diseases. One of the infectious diseases most associated with malnutrition among infants is diarrhea, this can often stem from unsafe food. Globalization is often regarded as a danger to food safety since traded food can introduce new hazards and spread contaminated food more widely. There have been some highly publicized cases such as the Cyclospora-related illness from Guatemalan raspberries in the US in 1996 (Unnevehr, 2003).

Nutrition and Parkinson Disease
Unintentional weight loss and declining nutritional status occur commonly in individuals with Parkinson disease (Berry et al., 1995). Explanations for this weight loss include anorexia, difficulty chewing and swallowing, increased time required to complete a meal, reduced sensitivity to smell and taste, depression, increased energy requirements (Levi et al., 1990) because of muscular rigidity and increased involuntary movements, side effects of medications, and decreased intestinal absorption of nutrients (Davis et al., 1996). Nutritional management might include modifying the textures and consistency of foods if chewing and swallowing are problems (Drrieu et al., 1992), offering food supplements and healthful snacks, providing prosthetic devices, and providing assistance with transportation and procurement of food (Berry et al., 1991; Kempster and Wahlqvist, 1994). Redistribution of protein may be of benefit, with most of the recommended daily allowance for protein provided in the evening and only 10g of protein in the daytime (Karstaedt and Pincus, 1992; Pare et al., 1992). Benefits within one week were improved daytime mobility at the cost of nighttime rigidity. The other modification is a 5:1 ratio of carbohydrate to protein in a meal that stabilizes the plasma levels of large neutral amino acids and allows for titrating levopoda dosages (Berry et al., 1991). When this dietary modification is helpful, 70% of the people will follow it for longer than one year (Senarath Yapa et al., 1989).

Diet Modifications can Lower Cholesterol
The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP, 1991) encourages people with high total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol to start with a step I diet that has less than 30% of the total calories coming from fat, 8% to 10% of calories from saturated fat, and less than 300 mg of cholesterol per day. If lipid levels do not decrease after three months, a step II diet is tried in which less than 30% of calories come from total fat, less than 7% from saturated fat, and less than 200 mg from cholesterol (NCEP, 1993). People with high fat baseline diets who lose weight can decrease their cholesterol by 25% with good compliance. Suggestions for lowering fat and saturated fat include: avoiding fats as spreads or for flavoring, avoiding or reducing consumption of meat, using specially manufactured low-fat foods (e.g., fat-free salad dressings), modifying common foods to be lower in fat (e.g., remove skin from chicken), and replacing a high-fat food with its low-fat equivalent (e.g., skin milk instead of whole milk). Children older than two years with high cholesterol levels can follow the NCEP step diet guidelines. More aggressive diets are also an option for those with high lipid values. These diets contain 10% of total calories from fat, less than 3% from saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and less than 5 mg of cholesterol per day with a minimal amount of animal fat. Labels on food products and nutritional information at fast food restaurants make counting fat grams much easier. Nuts have been shown to lower serum cholesterol levels (Kristal et al., 1992). Walnuts lowered LDL cholesterol by about 16%, and almonds or hazelnuts reduced serum cholesterol by 8% to 10%. Walnuts have a very low ratio of saturated fatty acids to polyunsaturated fatty acids, as well as a high percentage of fat from α-linolenic acid. Including a 1-oz portion of nuts in a low-fat diet should pose no problem while keeping calories under control. Changing the source of protein may be a method to further lower cholesterol. A meta-analysis found that consuming 31 to 47 g of soybean protein per day significantly decreases serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (Lovati et al., 1987). Evidence suggests that soy protein enhances secretion of bile acids and upregulates LDL-receptor activity. Soy protein may be especially helpful in the diets of children diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia. Fat can be replaced with soluble fibers that are known to lower cholesterol levels (Glore et al., 1994). Fibers that have been showing to lower cholesterol and LDL levels include pectins, gums, mucilages, legumes, oats, and carrots. The amount of reduction varies with the source of fiber. Psyllium has been shown to lower LDL levels by 14% in persons with hypercholesterolemia. Two mechanisms have been proposed for the cholesterol-lowering effect: fiber binds the bile acids, which lowers cholesterol to replete the bile acid pool, and bacteria in the colon ferment fiber to compounds (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) that inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Adding garlic to the diet also may lower cholesterol. Huff (1989) found that 900 mg of powdered garlic (1.5 cloves of garlic) reduced both total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol by about 12%. Fortuantely, cooking does not destroy the allicin (the cardioprotective chemical formed when garlic is crushed) and so the recommendation is simply to include cooked or raw garlic frequently in meals. Trans-fatty acids are found in many foods, and new data indicate that they may increase a person’s risk of a heart attack (Anderson et al., 1995). The amount of trans-fatty acids in typical margarine ranges from 10% to 30% of total fat and often exceeds 25% in cookies, crackers, pastries, and deep fried foods, such as French fries and doughnuts (Huff, 1989). Researchers have found that trans-fatty acids raise LDL cholesterol, lower the good (high-density lipoprotein [HDL]) and may negatively affect levels of lipoprotein (a), a hereditary risk factor for heart disease. A person be wary of products that list partially hydrogenated oil on the ingredient list, minimize use of both butter and margarine (choose a fat-free or more liquid version in a tub), cook or bake with olive oil or canola oil, avoid deep fat-fried items, and choose commercially baked items that are either fat free or made with canola or olive oil. What we do not eat may make a difference in our cardiovascular health also. Accumulating data indicate that serum homocysteine concentration is a risk factor for coronary artery disease (Anderson et al., 1995). Acquired homocysteinemia may be the result of vitamin B6, folic acid, or vitamin B12 deficiency. A vitamin B6 deficiency could be a possible risk factor for atherosclerotic disease (Huff, 1989; Anderson et al., 1995). Certainly, including foods high in vitamin B6, such as bananas, broccoli, chicken, dried beans, lean pork, peanut butter, potatoes, tuna fish, and whole wheat bread, can be helpful (Kristal et al., 1992). Epidemiologic evidence that eating no fish at all may be detrimental for the heart is remarkably consistent; however, increasing fish intake beyond one or two servings per week is unlikely to reduce coronary risk substantially in healthy men free of coronary disease.

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Nutrition and Hypertension
The effectiveness of weight reduction has been well documented in both mild and severe hypertension. A target for initial weight loss is 4.5 kg. Suggestions for successful weight loss include moderate exercise, moderate calorie restriction, positive self-statements regarding weight loss efforts, self-monitoring activities (food diary, goal setting, early attention to weight gain), and problem solving skills (Mahan and Escott-Stump, 1996). Some people are salt sensitive including about 30% to 50% of the hypertensive population. Salt sensitivity is defined as a >10 mm Hg decrease in blood pressure by salt depletion after salt loading or more than a 5% increase in blood pressure by salt depletion after restriction of salt (Espinel, 1992). The recommendation for salt intake is no more than 6 g/day, or 2400 mg/day (Espinel, 1992). This can be accomplished by cooking with as little salt as possible; by not adding salt at the table; and by avoiding highly salted and processed foods.

Nutrition and Acute and Chronic Renal Failure
Continuous renal replacement therapy has permitted new approaches to nutrition management with adaptation for individual needs. Calories can be given to meet daily energy expenditure, nitrogen can be given to achieve neutral nitrogen balance, and vitamins and trace elements can be given to meet expected demands (Kierdorf, 1995; Bellomo and Ronco, 1996). Adequate nutritional support promotes renal recovery and may prevent consequences of muscle weakness and immune dysfunction. Indices of malnutrition have also been established for individuals with end-stage renal disease; 20% to 50% are estimated to be malnourished, with morbidity and mortality significantly affected (Ikizler and Hakim, 1996). Catabolism and nutrient loss during dialysis are well documented. Intradialytic parenteral nutrition and use of amino acid dialysate are promising options.

Diverticulitis and Diet
Daily consumption of fiber-enriched foods is recommended for the prevention of diverticula. A high-fiber diet increases fecal bulk, decreases transit time, and eases stool elimination. The recommendation for fiber is 20 to 35 g/day (Bennett and Cerda, 1996). Some examples of high-fiber choices are whole wheat bread and other grain products, baked potato with skin, fresh fruit with skins, raw vegetables, beans, peas, legumes, wheat bran, and brown rice. Side effects may include flatulence, intestinal rumbling, cramps, and diarrhea. A gradual increase in dietary fiber helps to avoid these problems. Other potential problems with an excessively high fiber diet (greater than 40 to 45 gm) might include a decrease in nutrient absorption because of the increased volume of intestinal contents, which in turn decreases the ability of the digestive enzymes to come in contact with the food (Bennett and Cerda, 1996). An increase of water (eight 8-oz glasses) is important so intestinal blockage will not occur (Ozick et al., 1994). For small children and elderly persons a higher-fiber diet increases the volume of food needed to meet energy requirements, and that increase may be difficult to obtain. If the diverticula become inflamed, a low-fiber or low residue (no milk products) diet is required to prevent continued irritation of the inflamed tissue (Ozick et al., 1994).

A healthy diet depends on biodiversity
Good health depends on eating a variety of foods, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and wild foods such as berries, fish, and game. When we lose biodiversity, we lose many of the foods we rely on for a healthy diet. Then entire communities are faced with the health problems that come from poor nutrition. As a whole, the situation can be regarded as the type of distress which will occur in developing countries with low-developed technology and dependent on unstable weather conditions. The realization of this aspiration demands the tackling of many problems amongst which the control of endoparasitic diseases stands at the forefront. Regarding this health education will help reduce the transmission of parasites that will create a less contaminated environment. Social protection systems have been critical in fostering progress towards the MDG 1 hunger and poverty targets in a number of developing countries (FAO, IFAD and WFP, 2015). Social protection directly contributes to the reduction of poverty, hunger and malnutrition by promoting income security and access to better nutrition, health care and education.

Balanced diet
A balanced diet is comprised of protein, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. To obtain a balanced diet it is necessary to eat a wide variety of foods, since a shortage of any of the main classes will result in deficiency diseases. In certain developing countries deficiency diseases are common for three reasons which are shortage of the right kind of food, low incomes (families are often too poor to buy the right kinds of food even if they were available), and superstition and lack of education this include some people may not eat the right foods because they have not been educated in the concepts of a balanced diet. In developing countries including many Ethiopians what they do eat is not a balanced diet. In the face of this major barrier to better health, it does not follow the best way to lower mortality and morbidity. Food contaminated by pesticides, toxic chemicals, germs, or genetically engineered foods, may be available, but will not provide a safe, healthy diet. Also, without a safe cooking space and enough time and fuel to prepare food, people often eat too many processed foods, which can lead to health problems. Even when food is being produced, it is not used efficiently; considerable energy is lost in fevers of parasitic infections. Heat production in the human body increases about 72 percent for each degree rise in Fahrenheit. A single acute day of fever by malaria requires approximately 500 calories, or an energy demand equivalent to 2 days of hard manual labour (Schmidt and Roberts, 1981). In many developing countries it is estimated that 25-30 percent of the total energy yield from grain production is wasted by fevers caused by parasitic infection and in consumption by parasites (Schmidt and Roberts, 1981). Another cause of energy loss is malabsorption of digested and this is commonplace in parasitic infections. As a sequel of malnutrition and the lowered resistance to infection, opportunistic invasions by helminth larval migrans and protozoans, among others, take place. Inadequate access to a balanced diet can lead to both undernutrition and overnutrition, resulting in lifelong effects on human health and inefficiencies in food utilization. Food utilization refers to ingestion and digestion of adequate and quality food for maintenance of good health. This means proper biological use of food, requiring a diet that contains sufficient energy and essential nutrients as well as knowledge of food storage, processing, basic nutrition, child care and illness management .

Food hygiene
Good hygiene when preparing food is always essential but especially when food is being prepared for young children. Always wash hands with soap and water before handling food. Cooking utensils should be clean. Dry them on a drying rack. Never cough, sneeze or smoke over food that is being prepared for eating. If you are ill, particularly with vomiting or diarrhoea, do not prepare food as you are likely to pass on your infection. Cover cuts and sores on your hands and wear clean clothing. Flies carry disease so food should always be covered. Some food such as milk, eggs, cooked meat, cooked rice and other cereals will spoil more quickly than other kinds of food. Once cooked, food should not be left at normal temperatures for more than two hours. Raw meat and fish, and uncooked vegetables with soil on them, should never come into contact with cooked foods. After handling these foods, wash hands well before handling cooked foods.

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All living things need food to survive. It gives us energy for everything that we do. It also gives the body what it needs to repair muscles, organs and skin. Food helps us fight off dangerous diseases.

It is important to eat a wide range of food in order to stay healthy. Nutrition is the science that deals with food and how the body uses it.

The importance of food is obvious and essential. Healthy food provides us the nutrients and energy to develop and grow, be active and healthy, to move, play, work, think and learn. 
Foods are directly related to our body and mental and social health because each food or liquid contains particular nutrition such as carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals, fats, etc, which are very necessary for our physical and mental growth.  
Food and water are the main sources of nutrition and strengthening the body, but many of the foods we eat do not have any nutritional values. 
On the contrary, they lead to health problems such as diabetes and heart disease. Therefore, you should choose healthy and balanced foods that can provide enough nutritional values ​​for the body.

How the body uses food

Food has nutrients in it— substances that give our body many important things that we need. They provide us with energy and also help control the way our body grows.

Before nutrients can go to work food must be broken down so that they can pass into our body. This is called digestion. It starts when we chew the food that we eat. When we swallow it it travels on to the stomach where it is mixed together with water and other fluids. Then the food is passed on to the intestine. Nutrients escape through the walls of the intestine into our blood. From there they are carried to all parts of the body.

Most food leaves waste that the body cannot use. Some of it goes to the kidneys and turns into urine. The liver also filters out waste. What is left over passes through the large intestine and leaves our body.

Nutrients

There are six main groups of nutrients: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. The energy that food gives us is measured in kilocalories, or one thousand calories. A calorie is the energy that is needed to raise the temperature of water by one degree Celsius.

Water

Although water does not give us energy it is the most important nutrient. We may be able to live on without the others for weeks, but we cannot go on without water for more than a few days.

Water has many functions in our body. It helps break down food. It also cools the body down when it becomes too hot. The body carries away waste products in a watery solution.

Our body needs about 2 –3 litres of water a day. We get it from the water and liquids we drink but also from fruits, vegetables and other food.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for our body. Sugars and starches have carbohydrates in them.

Sugar is a simple carbohydrate. It gives us energy very quickly. This form of energy can be found in dairy products, honey, syrup, jams and jelly.

Starches must be broken down into sugars before our body can use them. They are found in beans, bread , potatoes, cereals, corn, pasta, peas and potatoes. They provide our body with a constant supply of energy.

Fats

Our body needs fat in small amounts. Fats are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. They store vitamins and produce fatty acids. We need these acids to produce cell membranes.

Fats can come from animals or plants. They are in meat and dairy products, like butter and cheese. Other types of fats are in vegetable oils, nuts or seeds.

Too many saturated fats produce a high level of cholesterol, a waxy material made by the body. It starts building up in the walls of blood vessels and may block blood as it flows through our body.

Proteins

Proteins are among the most important building blocks of our body. Muscles, skin and hair , for example, are made up of proteins.

Proteins are complex molecules made up of amino acids. The body can produce some of them itself, but we must get the others from food. Proteins are in cheese, eggs, fish, meat, milk, as well as in nuts, peas and beans.

Minerals

Minerals are needed for growth. They are inorganic, not made up of living things. Our body needs different amounts of various minerals. Calcium and magnesium, for example, are important for bones and teeth. We also need small amounts of iron. It is a component of haemoglobin, which carries oxygen to red blood cells. Fluorine or zinc are other minerals we need in very small amounts. They are called trace elements.

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Vitamins

Our body needs a variety of vitamins to stay healthy. Each of them does a different job. Vitamin A, for example, helps skin and hair grow. Vitamin C is needed to fight off infections. Vitamin D helps the growth of bones and teeth

The right diet

The key to staying healthy is eating the right food. Nutritionists suggest eating according to the food guide pyramid. It has five sections. You should eat a lot of the bottom parts, but only a little of the upper parts.

The Food Pyramid

Eating guidelines

• Be careful of your weight. Obesity can lead to health problems.
• Exercise every day. It helps the body burn calories and the fat you don’t need.
• Eat a lot of grain products
• Be careful not to eat food that has too much saturated fat and cholesterol
• Do not eat too much sugar. High-sugar foods and drinks have a lot of calories but not many nutrients.
• Don’t put too much salt on your food. This may lead to high blood pressure.
• Include fiber in your diet. It helps food move along in your body.
• Beware of alcoholic drinks. They have a lot of calories but no nutrients.
• Store and cook foods properly so that they do not lose their nutritional value.

Nutrition and diseases

All over the world people suffer from illnesses that are caused by eating the wrong food or not having enough to eat.

In developing countries deficiency diseases arise when people do not get the right nutrients. Kwashiorkor is a disease that occurs if your body doesn’t get enough proteins. Marasmus occurs in young children who don’t get enough calories every day. They become weak, underweight and often die.

Diseases often occur if you suffer from a lack of vitamins. Not enough vitamin D, for example, may lead to bone illnesses.

In industrialized countries people often suffer from eating too much. Too much fat and cholesterol in your body can lead to heart diseases, obesity and cancer. High cholesterol levels may make your arteries narrow . The result may be high blood pressure , a heart attack or a stroke.

The lack of certain minerals may also lead to illnesses. Not enough iron in your food reduces the blood’s ability to make red blood cells,

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Eat more fiber. You’ve probably heard it before. But do you know why fiber is so good for your health?

Dietary fiber — found mainly in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes — is probably best known for its ability to prevent or relieve constipation. But foods containing fiber can provide other health benefits as well, such as helping to maintain a healthy weight and lowering your risk of diabetes, heart disease and some types of cancer.

Selecting tasty foods that provide fiber isn’t difficult. Find out how much dietary fiber you need, the foods that contain it, and how to add them to meals and snacks.

What is dietary fiber?

Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, includes the parts of plant foods your body can’t digest or absorb. Unlike other food components, such as fats, proteins or carbohydrates — which your body breaks down and absorbs — fiber isn’t digested by your body. Instead, it passes relatively intact through your stomach, small intestine and colon and out of your body.

Fiber is commonly classified as soluble, which dissolves in water, or insoluble, which doesn’t dissolve.

types of fibers-

Soluble fiber. This type of fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. It can help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas, beans, apples, citrus fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.

soluble fibre – includes pectins, gums and mucilage, which are found mainly in plant cells. One of its major roles is to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels. Good sources of soluble fibre include fruits, vegetables, oat bran, barley, seed husks, flaxseed, psyllium, dried beans, lentils, peas, soy milk and soy products. Soluble fibre can also help with constipation

Insoluble fiber. This type of fiber promotes the movement of material through your digestive system and increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to those who struggle with constipation or irregular stools. Whole-wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts, beans and vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good sources of insoluble fiber.

insoluble fibre – includes cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin, which make up the structural parts of plant cell walls. A major role of insoluble fibre is to add bulk to faeces and to prevent constipation and associated problems such as haemorrhoids. Good sources include wheat bran, corn bran, rice bran, the skins of fruits and vegetables, nuts, seeds, dried beans and wholegrain foods.

Both types of fibre are beneficial to the body and most plant foods contain a mixture of both types.

The amount of soluble and insoluble fiber varies in different plant foods. To receive the greatest health benefit, eat a wide variety of high-fiber foods.

Benefits of a high-fiber diet

A high-fiber diet:

• Normalizes bowel movements. Dietary fiber increases the weight and size of your stool and softens it. A bulky stool is easier to pass, decreasing your chance of constipation. If you have loose, watery stools, fiber may help to solidify the stool because it absorbs water and adds bulk to stool.
• Helps maintain bowel health. A high-fiber diet may lower your risk of developing hemorrhoids and small pouches in your colon (diverticular disease). Studies have also found that a high-fiber diet likely lowers the risk of colorectal cancer. Some fiber is fermented in the colon. Researchers are looking at how this may play a role in preventing diseases of the colon.
• Lowers cholesterol levels. Soluble fiber found in beans, oats, flaxseed and oat bran may help lower total blood cholesterol levels by lowering low-density lipoprotein, or “bad,” cholesterol levels. Studies also have shown that high-fiber foods may have other heart-health benefits, such as reducing blood pressure and inflammation.
• Helps control blood sugar levels. In people with diabetes, fiber — particularly soluble fiber — can slow the absorption of sugar and help improve blood sugar levels. A healthy diet that includes insoluble fiber may also reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
• Aids in achieving healthy weight. High-fiber foods tend to be more filling than low-fiber foods, so you’re likely to eat less and stay satisfied longer. And high-fiber foods tend to take longer to eat and to be less “energy dense,” which means they have fewer calories for the same volume of food.
• Helps you live longer. Studies suggest that increasing your dietary fiber intake — especially cereal fiber — is associated with a reduced risk of dying from cardiovascular disease and all cancers.

How much fiber do you need?

The Institute of Medicine, which provides science-based advice on matters of medicine and health, gives the following daily fiber recommendations for adults:

Fiber: Daily recommendations for adults

	Age 50 or younger	Age 51 or older
Men	38 grams	30 grams
Women	25 grams	21 grams
Institute of Medicine

Your best fiber choices

If you aren’t getting enough fiber each day, you may need to boost your intake. Good choices include:

• Whole-grain products
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Beans, peas and other legumes
• Nuts and seeds

Refined or processed foods — such as canned fruits and vegetables, pulp-free juices, white breads and pastas, and non-whole-grain cereals — are lower in fiber. The grain-refining process removes the outer coat (bran) from the grain, which lowers its fiber content. Enriched foods have some of the B vitamins and iron added back after processing, but not the fiber.

Fiber supplements and fortified foods

Whole foods rather than fiber supplements are generally better. Fiber supplements — such as Metamucil, Citrucel and FiberCon — don’t provide the variety of fibers, vitamins, minerals and other beneficial nutrients that foods do.

Another way to get more fiber is to eat foods, such as cereal, granola bars, yogurt and ice cream, with fiber added. The added fiber usually is labeled as “inulin” or “chicory root.” Some people complain of gassiness after eating foods with added fiber.

However, some people may still need a fiber supplement if dietary changes aren’t sufficient or if they have certain medical conditions, such as constipation, diarrhea or irritable bowel syndrome. Check with your doctor before taking fiber supplements.

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Tips for fitting in more fiber

Need ideas for adding more fiber to your meals and snacks? Try these suggestions:

• Jump-start your day. For breakfast choose a high-fiber breakfast cereal — 5 or more grams of fiber a serving. Opt for cereals with “whole grain,” “bran” or “fiber” in the name. Or add a few tablespoons of unprocessed wheat bran to your favorite cereal.
• Switch to whole grains. Consume at least half of all grains as whole grains. Look for breads that list whole wheat, whole-wheat flour or another whole grain as the first ingredient on the label and have at least 2 grams of dietary fiber a serving. Experiment with brown rice, wild rice, barley, whole-wheat pasta and bulgur wheat.
• Bulk up baked goods. Substitute whole-grain flour for half or all of the white flour when baking. Try adding crushed bran cereal, unprocessed wheat bran or uncooked oatmeal to muffins, cakes and cookies.
• Lean on legumes. Beans, peas and lentils are excellent sources of fiber. Add kidney beans to canned soup or a green salad. Or make nachos with refried black beans, lots of fresh veggies, whole-wheat tortilla chips and salsa.
• Eat more fruit and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are rich in fiber, as well as vitamins and minerals. Try to eat five or more servings daily.
• Make snacks count. Fresh fruits, raw vegetables, low-fat popcorn and whole-grain crackers are all good choices. A handful of nuts or dried fruits also is a healthy, high-fiber snack — although be aware that nuts and dried fruits are high in calories.

High-fiber foods are good for your health. But adding too much fiber too quickly can promote intestinal gas, abdominal bloating and cramping. Increase fiber in your diet gradually over a few weeks. This allows the natural bacteria in your digestive system to adjust to the change.

Also, drink plenty of water. Fiber works best when it absorbs water, making your stool soft and bulky.

Resistant starch

Resistant starch, while not traditionally thought of as fibre, acts in a similar way. Resistant starch is the part of starchy food (approximately 10 per cent) that resists normal digestion in the small intestine. It is found in many unprocessed cereals and grains, unripe bananas, potatoes and lentils, and is added to bread and breakfast cereals as Hi-Maize. It can also be formed by cooking and manufacturing processes such as snap freezing.

Resistant starch is also important in bowel health. Bacteria in the large bowel ferment and change the resistant starch into short-chain fatty acids, which are important to bowel health and may protect against cancer. These fatty acids are also absorbed into the bloodstream and may play a role in lowering blood cholesterol levels.

Fibre keeps the digestive tract healthy

The principal advantage of a diet high in fibre is in improving the health of the digestive system. The digestive system is lined with muscles that massage food along the tract from the moment a mouthful is swallowed until the eventual waste is passed out of the bowel (a process called peristalsis). Since fibre is relatively indigestible, it adds bulk to the faeces.

Soluble fibre soaks up water like a sponge, which helps to bulk out the faeces and allows it to pass through the gut more easily. It acts to slow down the rate of digestion. This slowing down effect is usually overridden by insoluble fibre, which does not absorb water and speeds up the time that food passes through the gut.

Drink lots of water

A high-fibre diet may not prevent or cure constipation unless you drink enough water every day. Some very high-fibre breakfast cereals may have around 10g of fibre per serve, and if this cereal is not accompanied by enough fluid, it may cause abdominal discomfort or constipation.

Fibre and ageing

Fibre is even more important for older people. The digestive system slows down with age, so a high-fibre diet becomes even more important.

Lowering blood cholesterol

There is good evidence that soluble fibre reduces blood cholesterol levels. When blood cholesterol levels are high, fatty streaks and plaques are deposited along the walls of arteries. This can make them dangerously narrow and lead to an increased risk of coronary heart disease. It is thought that soluble fibre lowers blood cholesterol by binding bile acids (which are made from cholesterol to digest dietary fats) and then excreting them.

Fibre and weight control

A high-fibre diet is protective against weight gain. High-fibre foods tend to have a lower energy density, which means they provide fewer kilojoules per gram of food. As a result, a person on a high-fibre diet can consume the same amount of food, but with fewer kilojoules (calories).

Fibrous foods are often bulky and, therefore, filling. Soluble fibre forms a gel that slows down the emptying of the stomach and the transit time of food through the digestive system. This extends the time a person feels satisfied or ‘full’. It also delays the absorption of sugars from the intestines. This helps to maintain lower blood sugar levels and prevent a rapid rise in blood insulin levels, which has been linked with obesity and an increased risk of diabetes.

Fibre and diabetes

For people with diabetes, eating a diet high in fibre slows glucose absorption from the small intestine into the blood. This reduces the possibility of a surge of insulin, the hormone produced by the pancreas to stabilise blood glucose levels.

Conditions linked to low-fibre diets

Eating a diet low in fibre can contribute to many disorders, including:

• constipation – small, hard and dry faecal matter that is difficult to pass
• haemorrhoids – varicose veins of the anus
• diverticulitis – small hernias of the digestive tract caused by long-term constipation
• irritable bowel syndrome – pain, flatulence and bloating of the abdomen
• overweight and obesity – carrying too much body fat
• coronary heart disease – a narrowing of the arteries due to fatty deposits
• diabetes – a condition characterised by too much glucose in the blood
• colon cancer – cancer of the large intestine.

Diet, cancer and heart disease

Increasing dietary fibre and wholegrain intake is likely to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity, and possible overall mortality.

It is also very likely that these observed health benefits occur indirectly, through the protective effects of ‘phytochemicals’ (such as antioxidants) that are closely associated with the fibre components of fruits, vegetables and cereal foods.

Studies have shown that dietary fibre, cereal fibre and wholegrains are protective against colorectal cancer. Fibre is thought to decrease the risk of colorectal cancer by increasing stool bulk, diluting possible carcinogens present in the diet and decreasing transit time through the colon.

In addition, bacterial fermentation of fibre results in the production of short-chain fatty acids, which are thought to have protective effects against colorectal cancer. It is recognised that dietary fibre protects against colorectal cancer, each 10 g per day intake of total dietary fibre equates to a 10 per cent reduction in risk of colorectal cancer.

Ways to increase your fibre intake

Simple suggestions for increasing your daily fibre intake include:

• Eat breakfast cereals that contain barley, wheat or oats.
• Switch to wholemeal or multigrain breads and brown rice.
• Add an extra vegetable to every evening meal.
• Snack on fruit, dried fruit, nuts or wholemeal crackers.

A daily intake of more than 30 g can be easily achieved if you eat wholegrain cereal products, more fruit, vegetables and legumes and, instead of low-fibre cakes and biscuits, have nuts or seeds as a snack or use in meals.

You do not need to eat many more kilojoules to increase your fibre intake. You can easily double your fibre intake without increasing your kilojoule intake by being more selective. Compare the tables below.

Fibre intake of less than 20 g per day

	Fibre (g)	Kilojoules (kJ)
1 cup puffed rice cereal	0.4	444
4 slices white bread	3.0	1166
1 tablespoon peanut butter	2.7	610
1 piece of fruit (apple)	1.7	268
1/2 cup canned fruit, undrained	1.4	468
1/2 cup frozen mixed vegetables	4.3	102
Mashed potato 120 g	1.7	336
1 cup white cooked rice	1.0	999
2 plain dry biscuits	0.4	150
1 slice plain cake 60 g	0.6	643
1 cup commercial fruit juice	0.8	391
TOTAL	17.9 g	5,557 kJ

Fibre intake of more than 30 g per day

	Fibre (g)	Kilojoules (kJ)
2 wholewheat cereal biscuits (for example Weetbix or Vita Brits)	3.2	398
4 slices wholegrain bread	5.7	1085
1 tablespoon peanut butter	2.7	610
2 pieces of fruit (apple & pear)	4.9	515
1 cup frozen mixed vegetables	8.6	203
1 small boiled potato with skin, 100 g	2.8	338
1 cup white cooked spaghetti	2.5	696
2 wholemeal dry biscuits	1.5	209
25 almonds	3.0	852
1 cup whole fruit juice	0.5	362
TOTAL	35.4 g	5,118 kJ

A sudden increase in dietary fibre

A sudden switch from a low-fibre diet to a high-fibre diet can create some abdominal pain and increased flatulence (wind). Also, very high-fibre diets (more than 40 g daily) are linked with decreased absorption of some important minerals such as iron, zinc and calcium. This occurs when fibre binds these minerals and forms insoluble salts, which are then excreted.
This could increase the risk of developing deficiencies of these minerals in susceptible people. Adults should aim for a diet that contains 25 g to 30 g of fibre per day, and should introduce fibre into the diet gradually to avoid any negative outcomes.

It is better to add fibre to the diet from food sources rather than from fibre supplements, as these can aggravate constipation, especially if you do not increase the amount of water you drink daily.

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Every food group is important to providing essential nutrients and energy that can support normal growth and good health.

Choose foods that have a high content of nutrients (protein, vitamins, and minerals) compared with the amount of calories, fat, and sodium content.

• Fruit and vegetables
• Starchy food
• Dairy
• Protein
• Fat

You can read more about these below, including where to get them and how much you should eat.

Fruit and vegetables

You should eat at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day. They contain important vitamins and minerals that help prevent disease as well as fibre which can lower cholesterol, keep the bowel healthy and help digestion.

Fruit and vegetables are low in fat, so they’re great for bulking out meals and making you feel full without adding too many calories.

It’s easy to get your five a day if you spread your portions through the day. Try:

• adding chopped bananas to your cereal or toast at breakfast
• enjoying a piece of fruit as a mid-morning snack
• including a bowl of salad or vegetable soup with your lunch
• snacking on a bowl of raw carrots, peppers and cucumbers mid-afternoon
• adding a portion of veg to your evening meal.

What counts as a portion of fruit and vegetables?

• 1 apple, banana, pear, orange or other similar sized fruit
• 2 plums or similar sized fruit
• Half a grapefruit or avocado
• 1 slice of large fruit like melon or pineapple
• 3 heaped tablespoons of vegetables
• 3 heaped tablespoons of fruit salad or stewed fruit
• A dessert bowl of salad

These foods and drinks also count as one portion, but you can only count them once each day:

• 3 heaped tablespoons of beans or pulses
• 1 heaped tablespoon of dried fruit like raisins or apricots
• 150ml of fruit juice or smoothie.

Fruit juice and smoothies contain a lot of sugar, so limit them to just 150ml a day – that’s around the same as a small glass. Dried fruit is also high in sugar so it’s best not to eat it in-between meals to help prevent tooth decay.

Good to know

Fresh, frozen, tinned or dried fruit and vegetables all count towards your five a day. Check the labels and choose low sugar and salt options.

Starchy food

Starchy foods like potatoes, bread, rice and pasta should make up around a third of what you eat. They’re a good source of energy and essential fibre, calcium, iron and vitamins. Gram for gram, starchy foods contain less than half the calories of fat. Try not to add extra fat to starchy food by adding butter, oil, spreads, cheese or jam – that’s just adding more calories.

Good to know

It’s a good idea to base each meal around starchy foods. Try:

• starting your day with a wholegrain breakfast cereal
• having a sandwich made with wholemeal bread for lunch
• including potatoes, pasta or rice with your evening meal.

Wholegrain foods usually have more fibre and nutrients. They take longer to digest so they can help you feel full for longer. Good examples of whole grains are brown rice, wholewheat pasta, whole oats, wholegrain breakfast cereals and wholemeal bread, pitta and chapatti. You can also buy higher fibre foods made with a combination of wholegrain and white flour, like 50/50 bread.

Dairy

Dairy and dairy alternatives are good sources of protein and vitamins. They also contain calcium, which helps keep our bones healthy and strong. Semi-skimmed, skimmed, and 1% fat milk all contain less fat than full-fat milk, but still give you protein, vitamins and calcium.

Dairy-free milk alternatives include soya milk and nut milks – if you chose dairy-free milk then go for unsweetened varieties which have been fortified with calcium.

Some dairy products like cheese and yoghurts can be high in salt, sugar or fat (especially saturated fat),

Good to know

Try using a strong flavoured cheese, like mature cheddar – the strong flavour means you can use less without sacrificing taste, and so reduce fat. Try grating cheese too – a little goes a long way so you’ll use less.

Protein

Pulses

Pulses are things like beans, peas and lentils. They’re a good source of fibre, vitamins and minerals and are naturally very low in fat. They count towards your five a day but only as one portion, no matter how much you eat.

Pulses are great for bulking out things like soups, casseroles and meat sauces. They add extra flavour and texture and mean you can use less meat. This reduces the amount of fat you’re eating and also means your money will go further too, as pulses are usually cheaper than meat.

Other vegetable protein

Other vegetable-based sources of protein include tofu, bean curd and mycoprotein and Quorn. They are full of protein, low in fat and can be used in place of meat in most recipes.

Fish

Fish is a great source of protein, vitamins and minerals.  Aim to eat at least two portions of fish every week, one of which should be oil-rich (one portion is around 140g). Choose from fresh, frozen or tinned fish.

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Oil-rich fish

Oil-rich fish like salmon and mackerel contain omega 3 fatty acids which keep our hearts healthy and are a good source of vitamins A and D.

Oil-rich fish can contain low levels of pollutants that can build up in the body, so most of us shouldn’t eat more than four portions a week. There is extra advice to follow if you are pregnant, trying to get pregnant, or breastfeeding.

White fish and shellfish

White fish includes fish like haddock, plaice, coley, cod, skate and hake. It’s low in fat, contains important vitamins and minerals and a great alternative to meat. Choose fresh, frozen or tinned white fish, but remember smoked fish or fish tinned in brine can be high in salt so always check the label before you buy.

Shark, swordfish and marlin

Adults shouldn’t eat more than one portion of swordfish, shark or marlin per week. Children, pregnant women and women who are trying to get pregnant shouldn’t eat swordfish as it contains more mercury than other fish.

Good to know

It’s best to steam, bake or grill fish. Fried fish, especially battered fish, has more fat.

Eggs

Eggs are a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals. They’re a good choice as part of a healthy balanced diet and there’s no recommended limit on the number of eggs you can eat in a week. Eggs are great for making healthy, quick dishes. Try to avoid adding too much fat to eggs when cooking – poaching, scrambling or boiling is best. If you do fry eggs, don’t add too much oil to the pan and choose healthier unsaturated oils like vegetable, rapeseed or olive oil.

Quiches and flans contain eggs but can be high in fat and salt so eat them less often.

Meat

Meat is a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals. It’s one of the main sources of vitamin B12, an important vitamin which is only found in food from animals like meat and milk. It’s important to know how to cook and handle meat safely.

Red and processed meat

Red meat includes beef, lamb, venison and pork, all of which can form part of a healthy diet. Processed meat is meat that has been preserved by smoking, curing, salting or adding preservatives. Processed meat includes things like sausages, bacon, burgers, ham, salami, other cured meats and pâté.

Eating too much red and processed meat can increase the risk of bowel cancer. Aim to eat no more than 70g of red and processed meat a day – that’s around two slices of roast meat or two sausages. Try to cut back if you eat more than 90g (around 3 slices of roast meat) of red and processed meat a day.

Some types of meat are higher in fat, especially saturated fat. Eating lots of saturated fat can increase blood cholesterol levels which increases the risk of developing heart disease and stroke. Always try to choose lean cuts of meat with less visible white fat.

Tips to help you cut the amount of fat in meat dishes:

• Swap some of the meat for beans, peas and lentils – this will help your meal go further
• Grill meat rather than frying it
• If you’re roasting meat, place it on a metal rack above the roasting tin so the fat can run out
• Choose lean cuts and leaner mince – check the label or ask your butcher.
• Cut off excess fat before or after cooking
• Add as little fat as possible before or during cooking
• Substitute some of the meat in your recipe for vegetable sources of protein.

Fat

Oils and spreads

Some fat in our diet is essential but most of us eat too much. Plant-based oils like vegetable, rapeseed and olive oil are rich in unsaturated fat, so they can help lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. Lower fat unsaturated spreads are a good alternative to butter.

Good to know

Some fats are healthier than others but all fats have a lot of calories – limit them in your diet to help stay at a healthy weight.

Food and drink high in fat, salt and sugars

Food and drink high in fat, salt or sugar include chocolate, cakes, biscuits, savoury snacks and full-sugar soft drinks. In Scotland, half of the sugar we eat and around 20% of the calories and fat we consume comes from this kind of food. High fat, salt and sugar food and drink tends to have lots of calories and with little nutritional value and we don’t need it as part of a healthy balanced diet.

If you do want to include this kind of food in your diet, do it less often and in small amounts.

In Scotland, most of us eat too much sugar – in fact, we need to reduce the amount of sugar we eat by two-thirds. Too much sugar increases the risk of tooth decay and obesity.

Hydration

The body constantly loses fluid through breathing, sweating or going to the toilet and therefore this needs to be replaced. Aim to drink 6-8 glasses of fluid each day to help keep the body hydrated.

Water, lower fat milk and sugar free drinks, including tea and coffee all count. Choose sugar free options instead of sugary drinks.

Limit consumption of fruit juices and smoothies to no more than a combined total of 150ml per day, because they are high in sugar.

Alcohol contains lots of calories, however the amount of calories an alcoholic drink contains depends on the type of alcohol, the amount served and what mixers are added. As an example, 1 pint of lager or a 175ml glass of wine contains around 135 calories while a 25ml shot of spirit contains around 56 calories.

To minimise the health risks associated with drinking alcohol, consumption should be limited to no more than 14 units per week for men and women. One unit is the same as one small single measure of spirits, while a 175ml glass of wine or a pint of standard strength lager or cider contains 2 units.

Dehydration

We get dehydrated when we don’t drink enough fluid. One of the first signs of dehydration is feeling thirsty but you may notice other signs:

• darker urine than usual or not passing much urine when you go to the toilet
• headaches
• feeling confused or irritable, or finding it hard to concentrate.

Talk to your doctor if you have concerns about any of these symptoms.

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Nutrition can help enhance athletic performance. An active lifestyle and exercise routine, along with eating well, is the best way to stay healthy.

Eating a good diet can help provide the energy you need to finish a race, or just enjoy a casual sport or activity. You are more likely to be tired and perform poorly during sports when you do not get enough:

• Calories
• Carbohydrates
• Fluids
• Iron, vitamins, and other minerals
• Protein

Recommendations

The ideal diet for an athlete is not very different from the diet recommended for any healthy person.

However, the amount of each food group you need will depend on:

• The type of sport
• The amount of training you do
• The amount of time you spend doing the activity or exercise

People tend to overestimate the amount of calories they burn per workout so it is important to avoid taking in more energy than you expend exercising.

To help you perform better, avoid exercising on an empty stomach. Everyone is different, so you will need to learn:

• How long before exercising is best for you to eat
• How much food is the right amount for you,

Sports nutrition is a broad interdisciplinary field that focuses on the science behind and application of proper nutrition during exercise.

• The areas of interest are: body’s use of nutrients during athletic competition; the need, if any, for nutritional supplements among athletes; and the role of proper nutrition and dietary supplements in enhancing an athlete’s performance.
• The psychological dimension of sports nutrition is concerned with eating disorders and other psychiatric conditions related to nutrition among athletes.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are nutrients that provide calories or energy to the body. The purpose of macronutrients is to promote healthy cellular growth, metabolism, and to maintain normal bodily functions. The macronutrients, as suggested by the name “macro,” are needed in the body in large amounts to provide the full and proper effect.
There are three types of macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Carbohydrates are organic materials composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms which bond together to form monosaccharides or simple sugar molecules. Carbohydrates are found to form either a simple carbohydrate, composed of one monosaccharide, or a complex (composite) carbohydrate, composed of two or more monosaccharide molecules. When broken down, both simple and complex carbohydrates form glucose, which is the body’s main source of energy . In addition, carbohydrates form an important part of waste elimination and intestinal health, Carbohydrates can be found in most fruits, vegetables and grains and provide the body with 4 calories per gram .

Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds which are involved with many of the body’s most crucial functions including:

• Providing the primary workforce in the cells
• Making hormones and enzymes
• A high involvement with tissue repair.

Proteins also provide energy when there are not enough carbohydrates available as well as sustain lean body mass. Just as carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharides, proteins are composed of chains of amino acid molecules. Also just like carbohydrates, proteins provide the body with 4 calories per gram. Proteins are most commonly found in animal products, nuts, and beans.

Fats, which are collectively referred to as triglycerides, are molecules comprised of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats provide essential elements of cell membranes and also provide the body with the ability to absorb fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. As fats are the most energy-dense macronutrient, they also provide the highest calorie count, providing the body with 9 calories per gram instead of the 4 provided by one gram of either carbohydrate or protein. The three primary types of fat include:

• Saturated fat
• Unsaturated fat
• Trans fat.

Saturated fat, such as that found in butter and cream, as well as trans fat, which is found in snack foods and fried foods, have been shown to increase the risk for cardiovascular disease. While in turn, unsaturated fats, which are found in olive oil and canola oil, has been shown to decrease the risk of developing cardiovascular disease .
In regards to athletes, the knowledge of what carbohydrates, proteins, and fats provide the body with will allow them to make the best dietary decisions regarding their performance goals.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are chemical elements comprised of thirteen organic essential vitamins and seven inorganic minerals. When consumed in the human body, micronutrients play an important role in energy production, haemoglobin synthesis, healthy growth, bone and immune health, and maintain normal metabolism. Despite the importance of maintaining the correct level of these vitamins and minerals in the body, as the name “micro” suggests, these chemical elements are only required to exist in the body in small amounts to provide ample effect.

• The thirteen essential vitamins fall into one of two categories, water-soluble and fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins, the eight vitamins which compose the vitamin B complex and vitamin C, must be consumed daily as the body is unable to store what it does not immediately use. In contrast, the fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin K, A, D and E, can be stored in the body’s adipose tissue and therefore does not have to be consumed on daily basis to maintain the correct levels in the body .

Minerals are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring an athlete’s health. The seven minerals needed to maintain accurate energy and hydration levels include:

1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Zinc
4. Magnesium
5. Sodium
6. Chloride
7. Potassium

These are important because proper hydration prior, during, and after an activity is crucial in the effect on an athlete’s performance.

According to multiple sources, the most important vitamins and minerals for athletes include:

• Calcium
• Iron
• Zinc
• Magnesium
• The vitamin B complex
• Vitamins C, D and E due to their role in the efficiency of muscle contraction; both smooth and cardiac muscle.

These vitamins and minerals can be obtained in a wide variety of food or through added supplementation. 

Nutritional Recommendations for Athletes

Nutrition is very important to every athlete, and at high levels, where talent and training are relatively equal, it can be the difference between winning and losing. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) published data they complied from multiple sources on recommended nutrition for athletes in which they state, “that physical activity, athletic performance, and recovery from exercise are enhanced by optimal nutrition.” Therefore, athletes are advised to take a careful look at their daily intake of food to make sure their body is getting the nutrients it needs to repair, maintain, and build muscle. There are many recommendations for what athletes should be eating but below we looked at the ACSM and the U.S Anti-doping Agency (USADA) official recommendations.

Overall, the most important recommendation is that an athlete needs to track the amount of energy they are expending each day and make sure they are replacing this energy with a balanced diet of carbohydrates, protein, and fat. The recommended replenishment for maintaining carbohydrate levels in the body is eating 0.68 grams per pound of bodyweight within the first 30 minutes after training and again every two hours for four hours . For example, if a 180 lb. athlete completes their training for the day they need to have a meal/snack with about 122 g of carbohydrates, which could be a multi-grain bagel with peanut butter and an oatmeal bar Importantly, studies have shown it is not necessary for athletes who rest one or two days in between training bouts to follow this post-training carbohydrate recommendation as long as they are meeting their daily requirements, which are explained below.

The ACSM, and many other publications, recommend that an athlete should never train on an empty stomach. They recommend that an athlete eat between 200 and 300 g of carbohydrate three to four hours prior to exercising. The USADA says to add in small amounts of protein to help slow the breakdown of carbohydrates and aid in regulating energy levels by sending carbohydrates to muscles at a steadier rate throughout the training. However, they also say this is up to the athlete and the size of the meal they can tolerate before training. Athletes should experiment with different pre-training meals to find what they feel comfortable with and eat that meal at a time consistent to when they eat the pre-training meal before a game.

Research has shown a strong benefit to endurance performance for an athlete performing in events lasting longer than one hour if they eat about 30-60 grams of carbohydrates every hour during the event. This equates to eating a banana, a food bar, or something with equal carbohydrates every hour. The ACSM takes it even further and says it is much more beneficial to the body’s energy storage to eat small snacks or bites of carbohydrates every 15-20 minutes (about 10-20 grams each time) rather than waiting and eating 60-120 grams every two hours. The USADA says an athlete can intake 6-12 ounces of a sports drink that has 6-8% carbohydrates to water ratio. Anything greater than a 10% ratio increases the likelihood of cramps and an upset stomach. In similar regard, research is also now showing that high-quality protein consumed pre and post-training at just 0.2 grams per pound of bodyweight, which is about 4 ounces of chicken breast, is enough for a “maximal acute anabolic effect.” 

For daily intake the USADA, and practically every other organization, recommends that an athlete’s daily calorie should encompass about, 50-70% carbohydrates, 10-35% protein, and 20-30% fat . Therefore, an athlete needs to plan their day of meals according to these percentages so that they know their total caloric intake for a day encompasses enough of each type. Below is a detailed recommendation from ACSM of the breakdown of each nutrient an athlete needs for their specific body weight:

1 hour of training per day	2.5 grams per pound of body wt per hour of training
More than 4 hours of training per day	No more than 6 grams per pound of body wt

Endurance training	0.54-0.64 grams per pound of body wt
Strength training (to gain muscle mass)	0.72-0.81 grams per pound of body wt
Strength training (to maintain wt)	0.54-0.64 grams per pound of body wt [9]

20% of daily calories

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They do not recommend a specific value of grams per pound of fats because of the wide variety a person can consume. Almost all athletes do not need to make an attempt to consume more because foods an athlete is eating has fat in it, so the athlete just needs to be careful that he or she is choosing foods that have an adequate amount of fat. 

For the athlete looking for nutritional recommendations, the primary point of agreement between all researchers is that while there is some flexibility in the optimal timing of nutrients, the most important factor for maximizing the benefits of training is to consistently meet your daily carbohydrate, protein, and fat needs.

Nutrient Timing and Sport

Nutrient timing became popular about 15-20 years ago and is defined as intentionally eating specific foods before, during, and after training. Before this time athletes were not as concerned with their nutrition, let alone when they should eat certain foods. Ivy and Portman state that nutrient timing “will allow you to build more strength and lean muscle mass in less time than ever before.” They set out to debunk the fact that, if protein is good for the body then more protein must be that much better to build muscle.

Ivy and Portman explain that muscles have a very specific 24-hour growth cycle that involves the muscle producing energy, recovering, and building and athletes need to provide specific nutrients at each of these phases. They break these phases down into the energy phase (occurs during training), the anabolic phase (occurs within 45 minutes after training), and the growth phase (occurs after the 45 minutes and until the next training session). During the energy phase, as explained above, the muscles use its glycogen stores so the athlete needs to already have eaten carbohydrates and protein to aid the protein synthesis after training. During the anabolic phase, the athlete needs to follow the recommendations mentioned above and eat enough carbohydrates because the “muscle cell membranes are more permeable to glucose…this results in faster rates of glycogen storage”. Finally, during the growth phase, the athlete needs to consume carbohydrate meals with increased glycemic indexes because that helps the glycogen stores for the next workout.
This new, at the time, physiological research gave athletes something scientific they could look at and convinced a lot of them that nutrition was an important aspect of training that they have been missing. However, current research is now calling into question exactly how vital the 45-minute-anabolic window is and if it can be stretched.

Fluids and Hydration

Dehydration not only negatively alters performance but also causes serious complications. Dehydration of 1% to 2% body weight negatively influences performance and dehydration of greater than 3% further decreases physiological function and increases an athlete’s risk of developing exertional heat illness or worse. When intense exercise is combined with elevated temperatures or restricted heat loss, core temperature may rise by 2-3 °C and also result in exertional heat illness . Most studies agree that total water intake should be approximately in the 3.0 L (litre) range. Researchers found when dehydration increased, work capacity decreased by as much as 35% to 48%, and work capacity decreased even when maximal aerobic power did not change.

One study said water is the most important nutrient for athletic performance and the biggest component of the human body, accounting for approximately 73% of lean body mass. Trained athletes have higher total body water percentage values by virtue of high muscle mass and low body fat, because fat-free mass is roughly 75% water, while adipose tissue is only 10% water. Individual characteristics like body weight, genetics, metabolic proficiency, and heat acclimatization tendency will influence sweat rates.

Each pound of weight lost during exercise represents 1 pint (0.5 L) of fluid loss. Electrolytes regulate water distribution in various components of the body, with sodium being imperative to fluid regulation. The major electrolytes lost during exercise are mainly sodium chloride and some potassium. Researchers said sweat evaporation provides is the primary means of heat loss during vigorous exercise in hot weather. The goal of fluid replacement should be to prevent dehydration in excess of 2% body mass from occurring.

Before Exercise

The goal of hydrating before exercise is to start the physical activity hydrated with normal electrolyte levels. Researchers recommended 500-600 mL (17-20 fluid ounces (fl oz)) of water two to three hours prior to exercise and 200-300 mL (7-10 fl oz) 20 minutes before activity.

During Exercise

The goal of hydrating during exercise is to prevent excessive dehydration and electrolyte imbalances that could hinder athletic performance. Researchers recommended about 200-300 mL (7-10 fl oz) ever 10-20 minutes during physical activity. Athletes should make sure carbohydrate-loaded drinks have a 4-6% concentration.

After Exercise

The goal of hydrating after exercise is to fully replenish any fluid or electrolyte deficits. The athlete should ideally complete rehydration within 2 hours for hydration restoration, ingest carbohydrates (CHO) to replenish glycogen stores, and include electrolytes to prompt rehydration. Sodium in post-exercise beverages conserves fluid volume and stimulates thirst, while CHOs replenish glycogen stores.

Performance Implications

Recent research found:

• Dehydration has little to no effect on muscle strength or ballistic power but impairs the ability to perform aerobic exercise.
• 12-15 year-old basketball players with a water deficit of ~2% body mass made fewer shots and were significantly slower at sprinting and lateral movement tests.
• The players attempted fewer shots and were less able to make shots linked with movement when dehydration had increased to 3%. Stationary shooting was consistent up to 4% loss.
• Soccer players with modest dehydration during games perceived exercise as more difficult compared to when fluids were consumed with a higher internal temperature. Performance times were worse on running tests that mimicked play, as well.
• 66% of 139 college athletes surveyed recognized that body mass change is an effective method to evaluate hydration practices, but only 15% actually check their body mass.

Hyperhydration

Excessive hydration that surpasses sweating rate increases the potential of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH), a potentially lethal condition. Authors have linked EAH cases to mostly marathon participants, but the possibility remains with any athlete with low sweating rates and a copious amount of fluid

Ergogenic Aids and Performance

An ergogenic aid is defined as any means that supports in enhancing energy and utilization. Athletes use ergogenic aids to maximize performance separate themselves from the competition. Researchers classified ergogenic aids as mechanical, psychological, physiologic, and more researched pharmacological and nutritional. The general public seems mostly concerned with anabolic steroids, but a vast array of other ergogenic aids have come under scrutiny in athletics. In 2013, 0.7% of male athletes and 0.1% of female athletes reported using anabolic steroids in the last 12 months. Human growth hormone (HGH) is a commonly used aid in athletics, despite no evidence that says it improves strength, power, or performance. Amphetamines, creatine, erythropoietin (EPO), and androstenedione are several other ergogenic aids that are widely used that will be covered below. Numerous researchers reported the use of performance-enhancing substances (PES) in athletes as variable and range from 5% to 31%. Recent authors conducted an anonymous questionnaire to 2,987 German triathletes and found 13.0 % used PES to improve performance. 15.1 % of athletes noted the usage of cognitive doping to increase focus, determination, and memorization.

Anabolic Steroids

The main benefits of steroids are increased muscle size, strength, and lean body mass. Researchers randomly assigned 21 male weight-training subjects to either a testosterone or a placebo group over a 12-week period and found those in the testosterone group had significantly greater increases in muscle strength and circumference and decreases in abdominal skinfold measurements than the placebo group. Common side effects include acne, testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, cardiovascular disease, arrhythmias, stroke, blood clots, liver dysfunction, and cancer. Anabolic steroids are banned in all major sporting associations and events.

HGH

HGH is released in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates growth through the actions of insulin-like growth factor-1 which promotes lipolysis and protein anabolism to decrease fat and increase lean muscle. Authors reported that although HGH leads to an increase in muscular size, it does not lead to an increase in strength or athletic performance. Common side effects from prolonged fluid accumulation can lead to arthralgias and carpal tunnel syndrome among others.

Amphetamines/Stimulants

Commonly used stimulants include amphetamines, ephedrine, caffeine, phenylephrine, and methamphetamines. Stimulants release norepinephrine, which results in vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, mood elevation, resistance to fatigue, and even an increase in anaerobic capacity in some studies. A lower level of caffeine is the only accepted stimulant with drug testing.

Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-Methlbutyrate (HMB)

HMB is becoming increasingly more popular in supplementing training regimens. It is a precursor to cholesterol and is believed to diminish protein breakdown. Researchers found upper body strength and peak torque generation showed decent improvements after HMB supplementation in untrained individuals, but bench press gains and leg press one-repetition maximums in trained athletes were not affected. HMB is not tested for and completely safe.

Creatine

Creatine monohydrate is a naturally occurring compound that serves as an energy substrate for muscle contraction and is consumed in most diets. Studies show increases in strength, power, sprint times, total work to fatigue, peak force, and peak power. Of 21,000 students, the NCAA reported 14% usage among all athletes, with other studies reporting a 41% to 48% usage among college males. Caution should be observed in extreme, long-term usage, due to liver and kidney disease.

Vitamins

Athletes primarily use vitamin E, C, and A. Researchers thought these vitamins were antioxidants and therefore able to act as free-radical scavengers, but current research does not support their use for significant increases in performance.

L-carnitine

Researchers believed L-carnitine slowed muscle glycogen breakdown and led to a decrease in lactic acid production during exercise, which was proved inconclusive. Large doses of L-carnitine can cause excessive diarrhoea.

Androstenedione

As a natural precursor to testosterone, androstenedione is thought to allow for conversion to testosterone, but the majority of studies showed no significant increases in composition, strength, and testosterone concentrations. Most researchers found androstenedione lowered HDL levels, which increases the risk of cardiovascular issues, as well as the potential for the down-regulation of endogenous testosterone synthesis. Androstenedione is banned in all major sporting associations and events.

Erythropoietin (EPO)/Blood Doping

Endurance athletes benefit from improved delivery of oxygen to their tissues. One method which athletes attempt this is by living or training at high altitudes and another is through blood doping. Blood doping transfusions artificially increase the hematocrit, which increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. An alternative to doping, the drug EPO, which is produced mostly in the kidneys, increases hematocrit levels when administered in recombinant form. In response to hypoxic exposure, the body produces a greater amount of EPO.

After an autologous transfusion of 750 mL of red blood cells, the VO2 max increased by 12.8 %, and times on a treadmill test to exhaustion improved significantly. With blood doping, researchers found a 34% increase in time to exhaustion at 95% VO2 max, and a 44-second improvement in a five-mile treadmill run time performance. Other authors performed a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 4 weeks of EPO supplementation using a cycle ergometer and noted a hematocrit increase from 42.7% to 50.8% and a VO2 max increase from 63.6 to 68.1 mL kg–1 min–1.

Eating Disorders and Body Image in Athletes

Athletes may have a more positive body image than nonathletes.  A meta-analytic review found a small effect size which indicated athletes had a more positive body image than nonathletes.  The review found no difference between females or males, the type of athlete, age or body mass index .  Those who exercise regularly like athletes have been found to have a more positive body image than those who do not

Despite athletes overall having a more positive body image than nonathletes, they may be more likely to develop an eating disorder.  Common eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia athletica.  Researchers compared the prevalence of eating disorders between 1620 male and female elite athletes with 1696 male and female controls.  They found 13.5% of athletes had eating disorders compared with 4.6% of the controls.  Females athletes were also more likely to have eating disorders than males.  Those in aesthetic sports such as gymnastics, dancing, figure skating, aerobics and diving or sports with weight classes were more likely to have an eating disorder than those in endurance, technical or ball game sports .  Another medical condition female athletes who compete in sports which emphasize leanness are at risk of developing is the female athlete triad.

The treatment of athletes with eating disorders requires a multidisciplinary approach.  Coordination and support ideally should be provided from sports medicine professionals, athletic trainers, dieticians, psychiatrists, coaching staff, teammates and those close to the athlete.  Cognitive behavioural therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and atypical antipsychotics may also be used .  Eating disorders should be treated like sports injuries and require prevention, screening programs, correct treatment and timely support .

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The human body can last weeks without food, but only days without water. The body is made up of 50 to 75 per cent water. Water forms the basis of blood, digestive juices, urine and perspiration, and is contained in lean muscle, fat and bones.

As the body can’t store water, we need fresh supplies every day to make up for losses from the lungs, skin, urine and faeces (poo). The amount we need depends on our body size, metabolism, the weather, the food we eat and our activity levels.

Water as a vital nutrient: a multifunctional constituent of the human body

Water as a building material

Water, present in each cell of our body and in the various tissues and compartments, acts first as a building material. This primary function leads to nutritional recommendations, as water needs are higher during the growth period of the body.

Water as a solvent, a reaction medium, a reactant and a reaction product

Water has unique properties: it is an excellent solvent for ionic compounds and for solutes such as glucose and amino acids . It is a highly interactive molecule and acts by weakening electrostatic forces and hydrogen bonding between other polar molecules. It has a high dielectric constant and it forms oriented solvent shells around ions, thus enabling them to move freely. Water as a macronutrient is involved in all hydrolytic reactions, for instance, in the hydrolysis of other macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and so on).

Water is also produced by the oxidative metabolism of hydrogen-containing substrates in the body. Theoretically, for 1 g of glucose, palmitic acid and protein (albumin), 0.6, 1.12 and 0.37 ml water, respectively, is endogenously produced, or for 100 kcal of energy, 15, 13 and 9 ml water is produced.

Water as a carrier

Water is essential for cellular homeostasis because it transports nutrients to cells and removes wastes from cells. It is the medium in which all transport systems function, allowing exchanges between cells, interstitial fluid and capillaries . Water maintains the vascular volume and allows blood circulation, which is essential for the function of all organs and tissues of the body. Thus, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the digestive tract, the reproductive system, the kidney and liver, the brain and the peripheral nervous system, all depend on adequate hydration to function effectively . Severe dehydration therefore affects the function of many systems and is a life-threatening condition.

Water and thermoregulation

Water has a large heat capacity, which contributes to limiting changes in body temperature in a warm or cold environment. Water has a large capacity for vaporization of heat, which allows a loss of heat from the body even when ambient temperature is higher than body temperature. When sweating is elicited, evaporation of water from the skin surface is a very efficient way to lose heat.

Water as a lubricant and shock absorber

Water, in combination with viscous molecules, forms lubricating fluids for joints; for saliva, gastric and intestinal mucus secretion in the digestive tract; for mucus in airways secretion in the respiratory system and for mucus secretion in the genito-urinary tract.

By maintaining the cellular shape, water also acts as a shock absorber during walking or running. This function is important for the brain and spinal cord, and is particularly important for the fetus, who is protected by a water cushion.

 

Water in our bodies

Some facts about our internal water supply include: 

• Body water content is higher in men than in women and falls in both with age.
• Most mature adults lose about 2.5 to 3 litres of water per day. Water loss may increase in hot weather and with prolonged exercise.
• Elderly people lose about two litres per day.
• An air traveller can lose approximately 1.5 litres of water during a three-hour flight.
• Water loss needs to be replaced.

Importance of water

Water is needed for most body functions, including to: 

• Maintain the health and integrity of every cell in the body.
• Keep the bloodstream liquid enough to flow through blood vessels.
• Help eliminate the by-products of the body’s metabolism, excess electrolytes (for example, sodium and potassium), and urea, which is a waste product formed through the processing of dietary protein.
• Regulate body temperature through sweating.
• Moisten mucous membranes such as those of the lungs and mouth.
• Lubricate and cushion joints.
• Reduce the risk of cystitis by keeping the bladder clear of bacteria.
• Aid digestion and prevent constipation
• Moisturise the skin to maintain its texture and appearance.
• Carry nutrients and oxygen to cells.
• Serve as a shock absorber inside the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus in pregnancy.

Water in our food

Most foods, even those that look hard and dry, contain water. The body can get about 20 per cent of its total water requirements from solid foods alone. 

The process of digesting foods also produces a small amount of water as a by-product which can be used by the body. Water sourced this way can provide around 10 per cent of the body’s water requirements.

The remaining 70 per cent or so of water required by the body must come from fluids (liquids). 

Recommended dietary fluid intake

The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that we drink plenty of water but how much is enough?

The amount of fluid your body needs each day depends on several factors, such as your gender, age, how active you are, whether you’re pregnant or breastfeeding, and the conditions you’re living in.

How much fluid to drink each day

Infants aged 0–6 months*	0.7 litres
Infants aged 7–12 months#	0.8 litres total (with 0.6 litres as fluids)
Girls and boys aged 1–3 years	1 litre (about 4 cups)
Girls and boys aged 4–8 years	1.2 litres (about 5 cups)
Boys aged 9–13 years	1.6 litres (about 6 cups)
Boys aged 14–18 years	1.9 litres (about 7–8 cups)
Girls aged 9–13 years	1.4 litres (about 5–6 cups)
Girls aged 14–18 years	1.6 litres (about 6 cups)
Men aged 19 years and over	2.6 litres (about 10 cups)
Women aged 19 years and over	2.1 litres (about 8 cups)
Pregnant girls aged 14–18 years	1.8 litres (about 7 cups)
Pregnant women aged 19 years and over	2.3 litres (about 9 cups)
Lactating girls aged 14–18 years	2.3 litres (about 9 cups)
Lactating women	2.6 litres (about 10 cups)

* from breastmilk or formula
# from breastmilk, formula, food, plain water and other beverages

These adequate intakes include all fluids, but it’s preferable that the majority of intake is from plain water (except for infants where fluid intake is met by breastmilk or infant formula).

Some people may need less fluid than this. For example, people:

• Who eat a lot of high-water content foods (such as fruits and vegetables).
• In cold environments.
• Who are largely sedentary.

Other people might need more fluid than the amount listed and will need to increase their fluid intake if they are: 

• On a high-protein diet, to help the kidneys process the extra protein.
• On a high-fibre diet to help prevent constipation.
• Vomiting or have diarrhoea, to replace the extra fluids lost.
• Physically active, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat.
• Exposed to warm or hot conditions, to replace the extra fluids lost through sweat. 

Although activity levels affect the amount of fluid needed, there are many factors that influence the fluid needs of athletes during training and competition. For example, it is likely that athletes exercising in mild conditions will need less fluid than athletes competing at high intensities in warm conditions. 

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How to get enough fluid in your diet

If the idea of having to drink lots of cups of water a day doesn’t appeal, don’t worry – fluids include fresh water and all other liquids, such as milk, coffee, tea, soup, juice and even soft drinks. 

Fresh water is the best drink because it does not contain energy (kilojoules) and is best for hydrating the body. Water from the tap is also mostly free and generally available wherever you go.

However, milk is about 90 per cent water and is an important fluid, especially for children. Just remember to choose full-fat milk for children under two years old and low-fat and reduced-fat varieties for everyone else.

Tea can also be an important source of fluid. Tea can help you meet your daily fluid recommendations, and is a source of antioxidants and polyphenols, which appear to protect against heart disease and cancer.

If you prefer to get some of your fluids from fruit, aim to eat whole pieces of fresh fruit instead of having fruit juice – you’ll still get the delicious fruity juice (fluids) but you’ll also benefit from the bonus fibre and nutrients while avoiding the extra sugar found in fruit juice.

Tips for drinking more water

• Add a squeeze or slice of lemon or lime, or some strawberries or mint leaves to plain water to add variety.
• Keep a bottle or glass of water handy on your desk or in your bag.
• Drink some water with each meal and snack.
• Add ice cubes made from fresh fruit to a glass of water.

Limit mineral water intake

Commercially bottled mineral water contains salt, which can lead to fluid retention and swelling, and even increased blood pressure in susceptible people. Limit the amount of mineral water or choose low-sodium varieties (less than 30 mg sodium per 100 ml).

If you prefer bubbly water, think about getting a home soda water maker so you can just use tap water and make it fresh when needed.

Water fluoridation

An additional benefit of drinking tap (reticulated or mains) water in Victoria is that, in most areas, fluoride is added to the water. Bottled water does not usually have good levels of fluoride. Fluoridation of tap water helps prevent dental decay and is a safe and effective way of providing dental health benefits to everyone. 

  

Avoid sugary and artificially sweetened drinks

The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend all Australians to limit their intake of drinks containing added sugar. This includes sugar-sweetened soft drinks and cordials, fruit drinks, vitamin-style waters, flavoured mineral waters, energy and sports drinks.

Having sugary drinks provides additional energy (kilojoules) to the diet, but no other essential nutrients. There is strong evidence of the association between having sugary dinks and excess weight gain in both children and adults, as well as reduced bone strength and tooth decay.

Artificially sweetened drinks add very little energy (kilojoules) to the diet and therefore do not contribute directly to weight gain. However, artificially sweetened drinks still maintain the ‘habit’ of drinking sweet drinks. They may also lead to decreased bone density (as people may drink less milk) and contribute to tooth decay due to their acidity. 

Dehydration 

Dehydration occurs when the water content of the body is too low. This is easily fixed by increasing fluid intake. 

Symptoms of dehydration

Symptoms of dehydration include:

• Thirst.
• Headaches.
• Lethargy.
• Mood changes and slow responses.
• Dry nasal passages.
• Dry or cracked lips.
• Dark-coloured urine.
• Weakness.
• Tiredness.
• Confusion and hallucinations.

If dehydration is not corrected by fluid intake, eventually urination stops, the kidneys fail, and the body can’t remove toxic waste products. In extreme cases, dehydration may result in death. 

Causes of dehydration

There are several factors that can cause dehydration including: 

• Not drinking enough water.
• Increased sweating due to hot weather, humidity, exercise or fever.
• Insufficient signalling mechanisms in the elderly – sometimes, older adults do not feel thirsty even though they may be dehydrated.
• Increased output of urine due to a hormone deficiency, diabetes, kidney disease or medications.
• Diarrhoea or vomiting.
• Recovering from burns.

At-risk groups for dehydration

Anyone can experience dehydration but there are some people who can be more at risk – such as babies, children and the elderly. 

Babies and children

Babies and children are susceptible to dehydration, particularly if they are ill. Vomiting, fever and diarrhoea can quickly cause dehydration. 

Dehydration can be a life-threatening condition in babies and children. If you suspect dehydration, take your baby or child to the nearest hospital emergency department immediately.

Some of the symptoms of dehydration in babies and children include: 

• Cold skin.
• Lethargy.
• Dry mouth.
• A blue tinge to the skin as the circulation slows.
• In babies, depressed fontanelle (the soft spot on top of a baby’s skull where the bones are yet to close).

Types of dehydration

There are three types of dehydration : (1) isotonic dehydration in which net salt and water loss is equal, (2) hypertonic dehydration characterized by loss of water in excess of salt and (3) hypotonic dehydration, characterized by loss of salt in excess of water.

1. 1 In isotonic dehydration, salt may be lost isotonically from the gastrointestinal tract, such as after profuse diarrhoea . Only the ECF volume is reduced, and treatment is the prescription of isotonic salt solutions, such as the World health Organization’s rehydration solution for the treatment of diarrhoea, a solution that is widely used in developing countries.
2. 2 Inadequate water intake and excessive water loss are the two mechanisms responsible for the development of hypertonic dehydration. Insufficient water intake may be caused by defective thirst or impaired consciousness, or by a lack of available water. Large water loss may result from osmotic diuresis or diabetes insipidus. Vomiting is accompanied by a loss of hydrochloric acid, which is almost equivalent to the loss of pure water because NaHCO3 (which is finally absorbed and passes into the blood) replaces it. Sweating can represent an important hypotonic fluid loss when exercising in a hot environment.
3. 3 Hypotonic dehydration occurs when losses of gastrointestinal fluids (which are either hypotonic or isotonic in relation to plasma) are replaced by water, or by a solution that contains less Na⁺ and K⁺ than the fluid that has been lost The reduced osmolarity of ECF causes a shift of water into the intracellular fluid to reach osmotic balance. Hence, cell volume increases in spite of a reduction in ECF. Treatment of hypotonic dehydration may need both hypertonic saline to restore the osmolarity of body fluids and isotonic saline to compensate the loss of ECF.

Elderly people

Older people are often at risk of dehydration due to: 

• Changes to kidney function, which declines with age.
• Hormonal changes.
• Not feeling thirsty (because the mechanisms in the body that trigger thirst do not work as well as we age).
• Medication (for example, diuretics and laxatives).
• Chronic illness.
• Limited mobility.

Getting the right balance of fluid intake

Not drinking enough water can increase the risk of kidney stones and, in women, urinary tract infections. It can also lower your physical and mental performance, and your salivary gland function, and lead to dehydration.

But did you know that it is possible to drink too much water and cause a condition called hyponatraemia (water intoxication)? 

Water intoxication (hyponatraemia)

Drinking too much water can damage the body and cause hyponatraemia (water intoxication), although it is pretty rare in the general population.

Hyponatraemia occurs when sodium in the blood, which is needed for muscle contraction and sending nerve impulses, drops to a dangerously low level.  

If large amounts of plain water are consumed in a short period of time, the kidneys cannot get rid of enough fluid through urine and the blood becomes diluted. Hyponatraemia can lead to headaches, blurred vision, cramps (and eventually convulsions), swelling of the brain, coma and possibly death. 

For water to reach toxic levels, many litres of water would have to be consumed in a short period of time.
Hyponatraemia is most common in people with particular diseases or mental illnesses (for example, in some cases of schizophrenia), endurance athletes and in infants who are fed infant formula that is too diluted.

Fluid retention

Many people believe that drinking water causes fluid retention. In fact, the opposite is true. Drinking water helps the body rid itself of excess sodium, which results in less fluid retention. 

The body will retain fluid if there is too little water in the cells. If the body receives enough water on a regular basis, there will be no need for it to hold onto water and this will reduce fluid retention.

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Counting calories and eating for weight loss is one thing, but what about basic nutrition? Your overall nutrition is not only important for health, but can also significantly impact how successful you are on any diet. And not getting the right amount or adequate amounts can lead to everything from poor energy and performance to chronic disease and serious health conditions. 

Keep reading to get to know the basics of how your body ticks and where to get everything you need to live a healthy lifestyle, regardless of what meal plan or diet approach you are taking. 

Nutrition 101

Getting good nutrition is essentially the act of supplying your body with the necessary nutrients you need to thrive. And nutrients are classified into two categories, based on the amount required by our bodies: macronutrients and micronutrients.

Both groups of nutrients provide all of the necessary elements to promote our bodies’ growth and development and to regulate our bodies’ processes. However, since everyone’s body is different, it’s important to know what the right balance between these nutrients are for your body and for your specific goals. 

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Macronutrients

In the simplest form, macronutrients are the elements in food needed for a person to grow and function. They are needed in large quantities in comparison to other nutrients which is why they are called “macro” nutrients and are commonly referred to as “macros”.

Macros provide all of the calories you get from food and beverages – nutrition facts labels actually use macros grams to calculate how many calories are in the food. 

Generally, macronutrients are broken into three groups: carbohydrates, protein, and fat. Alcohol is also considered a macro since it provides calories, but it is not a considered an important source of nutrition, so it is often left out when counting macros. 

Each macro provides a different calorie amount per gram – 4 grams per calorie for protein and carbs, and 9 grams of calories for fat (alcohol provides 7 grams per calorie). And even though all macros provide valuable energy, each macro has a different function in your body. 

Because macros are essentially your calories organized into key groups, learning how to balance and track your macros is a popular approach to weight loss and better fitness results. 

Carbohydrates

We use carbohydrates for quick energy – they are your body’s favorite source of fuel because it doesn’t take a lot of work to get energy from carbs. Our bodies easily break down this macronutrient into glucose (sugar) which is the same type of sugar found in your blood. Our brains and muscles are the biggest users of glucose, but all cells in our bodies use it to function. But the amount of carbs you need each day can differ from one person to the next based on activity level, weight, muscle mass, overall health, etc.

However, carbs are not essential for survival. Your body has a work-around when carbs are not present for extended periods of time, or possibly forever, using fat and protein instead. This is how the keto diet works! 

In addition, not all carbs are created equal. Carbs come from all plant based foods and some dairy, but they can also come from directly from added sugar and many processed, unhealthy foods. Because carbs are so easy to get in the diet, they can tend to get a bad rap. But choosing more wholesome sources include whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and beans, can improve your overall nutrition and allow you to still be successful in losing weight.

Sugar

All carbs are technically a type of sugar, but not all of them act the same way when it comes to your health. Naturally occurring sugar – like the kind found in fruits, milk and legumes, is often confused with added sugar. Sugar from whole foods tend to be combined with other key nutrients and don;t always cause a spike in blood sugar. Whereas added sugar tends to be found in mostly processed foods, and when eaten alone (like in a sugar sweetened soda) can certainly impact your energy and insulin levels more drastically than other carbs.

By rule of thumb, you should aim to limit added sugars and focus on more naturally occurring sources from plant based foods. 

Starch

Starchy carbs are often referred to as “complex carbs”. This type of carb takes the longest to break down, providing more sustained energy and less impact on your blood sugar levels. Common starchy foods include corn, beans, potatoes and whole grains. 

Fiber

And lastly fiber! Many people don’t realize that fiber is actually a type of carbohydrate. But fiber is not as easily digested, and cannot be absorbed by the body, making it significantly different than other carb types. There are two main types of fiber, soluble fiber that helps draw water into your gut, aiding in feelings of fullness and promoting heart health (as it draws water in, it can also grab cholesterol among other things with it). And insoluble fiber that sort of pushes everything through, supporting digestion and regularity. 

The best sources of fiber include whole grains, beans, nuts, seeds, fruits and vegetables. 

Protein

Protein is the “builder” macro and unlike carbs, it is essential for good nutrition. In fact, protein plays such a unique role, it is often your last resort for daily energy and instead used to build, repair and maintain your entire self. 

We need protein in our diets because it provides us with essential amino acids that we cannot make ourselves. Our bodies are like recycling geniuses that can take an old pallet (plant and animal protein), break it down (into amino acids), and make a bench from the parts (new protein). Proteins play a part in all of our bodies’ functions from our nervous system to our digestive system, and our entire body, cells, DNA, etc. is all made up of proteins. 

Healthy sources include beans, nuts and seeds, lean meats, and eggs. And while animal sources of protein have the highest protein content per calorie, you can also meet your protein needs without eating animal products on a vegan or vegetarian diet.

Fat

Fats, like protein, are also an essential dietary must – they are a great long-term source of energy and also play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, hormone regulation, and promoting healthy cell function.

Fat tends to get a bad rap because it is the most calorie dense macro (providing more calories per volume) and when eaten in excess it can easily stored as body fat. But other macros can also be stored as body fat and this process requires you to eat more calories than you need – leading to weight gain. There is no need to fear fat as long as your calories are controlled and you are using an overall macro balance that works for you. 

Healthy sources of fat include eggs, fatty fish, nuts and seeds, healthy oils, and avocados.

Saturated Fat

It is highly debated whether saturated fats are needed, but it is widely agreed we should not consume them in high amounts. While the research is torn over whether or not they are 100% “bad”, high intakes of saturated fat has been associated with increased blood cholesterol in numerous studies and we haven’t found in true health benefits of this type of fat either .

Saturated fats are mostly found in animal products like milk, cheese, and meats, but they are also found in smaller amounts in plant sources such as seeds and nuts, avocados, and plant oils.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a type of fat used to make hormones, Vitamin D, and digestive substances. But it is not necessary to consume high amounts of cholesterol because our bodies can make it from the fat we eat. Research has also indicated that dietary cholesterol may not be as strongly linked to blood cholesterol as we once though, but it is probably still good practice to avoid going overboard .

Major dietary sources of cholesterol include cheese, egg yolks, and fatty meats. It is not found in significant amounts in plant sources.

Micronutrients are one of the major groups of nutrients your body needs. They include vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins are necessary for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other functions. Meanwhile, minerals play an important role in growth, bone health, fluid balance and several other processes.

This article provides a detailed overview of micronutrients, their functions and implications of excess consumption or deficiency.

What Are Micronutrients?

The term micronutrients is used to describe vitamins and minerals in general.

Macronutrients, on the other hand, include proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

Your body needs smaller amounts of micronutrients relative to macronutrients. That’s why they’re labeled “micro.”

Humans must obtain micronutrients from food since your body cannot produce vitamins and minerals — for the most part. That’s why they’re also referred to as essential nutrients.

Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants and animals which can be broken down by heat, acid or air. On the other hand, minerals are inorganic, exist in soil or water and cannot be broken down.

When you eat, you consume the vitamins that plants and animals created or the minerals they absorbed.

The micronutrient content of each food is different, so it’s best to eat a variety of foods to get enough vitamins and minerals.

An adequate intake of all micronutrients is necessary for optimal health, as each vitamin and mineral has a specific role in your body.

Vitamins and minerals are vital for growth, immune function, brain development and many other important functions.

Depending on their function, certain micronutrients also play a role in preventing and fighting disease

Summary

Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. They’re critical for several important functions in your body and must be consumed from food.

Types and Functions of Micronutrients

Vitamins and minerals can be divided into four categories: water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, macrominerals and trace minerals.

Regardless of type, vitamins and minerals are absorbed in similar ways in your body and interact in many processes.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Most vitamins dissolve in water and are therefore known as water-soluble. They’re not easily stored in your body and get flushed out with urine when consumed in excess.

While each water-soluble vitamin has a unique role, their functions are related.

For example, most B vitamins act as coenzymes that help trigger important chemical reactions. A lot of these reactions are necessary for energy production.

The water-soluble vitamins — with some of their functions — are:

• Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Helps convert nutrients into energy.
• Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): Necessary for energy production, cell function and fat metabolism.
• Vitamin B3 (niacin): Drives the production of energy from food.
• Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): Necessary for fatty acid synthesis .
• Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine): Helps your body release sugar from stored carbohydrates for energy and create red blood cells .
• Vitamin B7 (biotin): Plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids and glucose .
• Vitamin B9 (folate): Important for proper cell division .
• Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): Necessary for red blood cell formation and proper nervous system and brain function
• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Required for the creation of neurotransmitters and collagen, the main protein in your skin.

As you can see, water-soluble vitamins play an important role in producing energy but also have several other functions.

Since these vitamins are not stored in your body, it’s important to get enough of them from food.

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Sources and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) or Adequate Intakes (AIs) of water-soluble vitamins are

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)	Whole grains, meat, fish	1.1–1.2 mg
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)	Organ meats, eggs, milk	1.1–1.3 mg
Vitamin B3 (niacin)	Meat, salmon, leafy greens, beans	14–16 mg
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)	Organ meats, mushrooms, tuna, avocado	5 mg
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)	Fish, milk, carrots, potatoes	1.3 mg
Vitamin B7 (biotin)	Eggs, almonds, spinach, sweet potatoes	30 mcg
Vitamin B9 (folate)	Beef, liver, black-eyed peas, spinach, asparagus	400 mg
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)	Clams, fish, meat	2.4 mcg
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	Citrus fruits, bell peppers, Brussels sprouts	75–90 mg

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins do not dissolve in water.

They’re best absorbed when consumed alongside a source of fat. After consumption, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in your liver and fatty tissues for future use.

The names and functions of fat-soluble vitamins are:

• Vitamin A: Necessary for proper vision and organ function .
• Vitamin D: Promotes proper immune function and assists in calcium absorption and bone growth.
• Vitamin E: Assists immune function and acts as an antioxidant that protects cells from damage.
• Vitamin K: Required for blood clotting and proper bone development.

Sources and recommended intakes of fat-soluble vitamins are:

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Vitamin A	Retinol (liver, dairy, fish), carotenoids (sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach)	700–900 mcg
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish oil, milk	600–800 IU
Vitamin E	Sunflower seeds, wheat germ, almonds	15 mg
Vitamin K	Leafy greens, soybeans, pumpkin	90–120 mcg

Macrominerals

Macrominerals are needed in larger amounts than trace minerals in order to perform their specific roles in your body.

The macrominerals and some of their functions are:

• Calcium: Necessary for proper structure and function of bones and teeth. Assists in muscle function and blood vessel contraction.
• Phosphorus: Part of bone and cell membrane structure.
• Magnesium: Assists with over 300 enzyme reactions, including regulation of blood pressure.
• Sodium: Electrolyte that aids fluid balance and maintenance of blood pressure
• Chloride: Often found in combination with sodium. Helps maintain fluid balance and is used to make digestive juices.
• Potassium: Electrolyte that maintains fluid status in cells and helps with nerve transmission and muscle function .
• Sulfur: Part of every living tissue and contained in the amino acids methionine and cysteine

Sources and recommended intakes of the macrominerals are

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Calcium	Milk products, leafy greens, broccoli	2,000–2,500 mg
Phosphorus	Salmon, yogurt, turkey	700 mg
Magnesium	Almonds, cashews, black beans	310–420 mg
Sodium	Salt, processed foods, canned soup	2,300 mg
Chloride	Seaweed, salt, celery	1,800–2,300 mg
Potassium	Lentils, acorn squash, bananas	4,700 mg
Sulfur	Garlic, onions, Brussels sprouts, eggs, mineral water	None established

Trace Minerals

Trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts than macrominerals but still enable important functions in your body.

The trace minerals and some of their functions are:

• Iron: Helps provide oxygen to muscles and assists in the creation of certain hormones.
• Manganese: Assists in carbohydrate, amino acid and cholesterol metabolism.
• Copper: Required for connective tissue formation, as well as normal brain and nervous system function .
• Zinc: Necessary for normal growth, immune function and wound healing.
• Iodine: Assists in thyroid regulation.
• Fluoride: Necessary for the development of bones and teeth.
• Selenium: Important for thyroid health, reproduction and defense against oxidative damage .

Sources and recommended intakes of trace minerals are:

Nutrient	Sources	RDA or AI (adults > 19 years)
Iron	Oysters, white beans, spinach	8–18 mg
Manganese	Pineapple, pecans, peanuts	1.8–2.3 mg
Copper	Liver, crabs, cashews	900 mcg
Zinc	Oysters, crab, chickpeas	8–11 mg
Iodine	Seaweed, cod, yogurt	150 mcg
Fluoride	Fruit juice, water, crab	3–4 mg
Selenium	Brazil nuts, sardines, ham	55 mcg

Summary

Micronutrients can be divided into four groups — water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, macrominerals and trace minerals. The functions, food sources and recommended intakes of each vitamin and mineral vary.

Health Benefits of Micronutrients

All micronutrients are extremely important for the proper functioning of your body.

Consuming an adequate amount of the different vitamins and minerals is key to optimal health and may even help fight disease.

This is because micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Moreover, certain vitamins and minerals can act as antioxidants.

Antioxidants may protect against cell damage that has been associated with certain diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer’s and heart disease

For example, research has linked an adequate dietary intake of vitamins A and C with a lower risk of some types of cancer

Getting enough of some vitamins may also help prevent Alzheimer’s disease. A review of seven studies found that adequate dietary intake of vitamins E, C and A is associated with a 24%, 17% and 12% reduced risk of developing Alzheimer’s, respectively .

Certain minerals may also play a role in preventing and fighting disease.

Research has linked low blood levels of selenium to a higher risk of heart disease. A review of observational studies found that the risk of heart disease decreased by 24% when blood concentrations of selenium increased by 50%.

Additionally, a review of 22 studies noticed that adequate calcium intake decreases the risk of death from heart disease and all other causes.

These studies suggest that consuming enough of all micronutrients — especially those with antioxidant properties — provides ample health benefits.

However, it’s unclear whether consuming more than the recommended amounts of certain micronutrients — either from foods or supplements — offers additional benefits

Summary

Micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Some even act as antioxidants. Due to their important role in health, they may protect against diseases.

Micronutrient Deficiencies and Toxicities

Micronutrients are needed in specific amounts to perform their unique functions in your body.

Getting too much or too little of a vitamin or mineral can lead to negative side effects.

Deficiencies

Most healthy adults can get an adequate amount of micronutrients from a balanced diet, but there are some common nutrient deficiencies that affect certain populations.

These include:

• Vitamin D: Approximately 77% of Americans are deficient in vitamin D, mostly due to lack of sun exposure.
• Vitamin B12: Vegans and vegetarians may develop vitamin B12 deficiency from refraining from animal products. Elderly individuals are also at risk due to decreased absorption with age.
• Vitamin A: The diets of women and children in developing countries often lack adequate vitamin A.
• Iron: Deficiency of this mineral is common among preschool children, menstruating women and vegans .
• Calcium: Close to 22% and 10% of men and women over 50, respectively, don’t get enough calcium.

The signs, symptoms and long-term effects of these deficiencies depend on each nutrient but can be detrimental to the proper functioning of your body and optimal health.

Toxicities

Micronutrient toxicities are less common than deficiencies.

They are most likely to occur with large doses of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K since these nutrients can be stored in your liver and fatty tissues. They cannot be excreted from your body like water-soluble vitamins.

A micronutrient toxicity usually develops from supplementing with excess amounts — rarely from food sources. Signs and symptoms of toxicity vary depending on the nutrient.

It’s important to note that excessive consumption of certain nutrients can still be dangerous even if it does not lead to overt toxicity symptoms.

One study examined over 18,000 people with a high risk of lung cancer due to past smoking or asbestos exposure. The intervention group received two types of vitamin A — 30 mg of beta-carotene and 25,000 IU of retinyl palmitate a day .

The trial was halted ahead of schedule when the intervention group showed 28% more cases of lung cancer and a 17% greater incidence of death over 11 years compared to the control group.

Micronutrient Supplements

The safest and most effective way to get adequate vitamin and mineral intake appears to be from food sources.

More research is needed to fully understand the long-term effects of toxicities and supplements.

However, people at risk of specific nutrient deficiencies may benefit from taking supplements under the supervision of a doctor.

If you’re interested in taking micronutrient supplements, look for products certified by a third party. Unless otherwise directed by a healthcare provider, be sure to avoid products that contain “super” or “mega” doses of any nutrient.

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Vitamins and minerals are only needed in small quantities in the body, but their role is essential to overall health and proper functioning of all body systems. And while many vitamins and minerals work together to perform various functions in the body, they are classified based on their independent characteristics. These characteristics impact not only how we obtain them in our diets, but also how we absorb them and store them, as well as how we experience deficiencies or toxicities when too little or too much is consumed. After we review the classifications for vitamins and minerals, we will examine key vitamins and minerals based on their similar functions to further highlight the importance of how these micronutrients work together.

Vitamins

The name “vitamin” comes from Casimir Funk, who in 1912 thought “vital amines” (similar to amino acids) were responsible for preventing what we know now as vitamin deficiencies. He coined the term “vitamines” to describe these organic substances that were recognized as essential for life, yet unlike other organic nutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fat), do not provide energy to the body. Eventually, when scientists discovered that these compounds were not amines, the ‘e’ was dropped to form the term “vitamins.”¹

Classification of Vitamins

Vitamins are essential, non-caloric, organic micronutrients. There is energy contained in the chemical bonds of vitamin molecules, but our bodies don’t make the enzymes to break these bonds and release their energy; instead, vitamins serve other essential functions in the body. Vitamins are traditionally categorized into two groups: water-soluble or fat-soluble. Whether vitamins are water-soluble or fat-soluble can affect their functions and sites of action. For example, water-soluble vitamins often act in the cytosol of cells (the fluid inside of cells) or in extracellular fluids such as blood, while fat-soluble vitamins play roles such as protecting cell membranes from free radical damage or acting within the cell’s nucleus to influence gene expression.

Classification of vitamins as water-soluble or fat-soluble.

One major difference between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins is the way they are absorbed in the body. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed directly from the small intestine into the bloodstream. Fat-soluble vitamins are first incorporated into chylomicrons, along with fatty acids, and transported through the lymphatic system to the bloodstream and then on to the liver. The bioavailability (i.e., the amount that gets absorbed) of these vitamins is dependent on the food composition of the diet. Because fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with dietary fat, if a meal is very low in fat, the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins in that meal may be impaired.

. “Absorption of Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins.”

Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins also differ in how they are stored in the body. The fat-soluble vitamins—vitamins A, D, E, and K—can be stored in the liver and the fatty tissues of the body. The ability to store these vitamins allows the body to draw on these stores when dietary intake is low, so deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins may take months to develop as the body stores become depleted. On the flip side, the body’s storage capacity for fat-soluble vitamins increases the risk for toxicity. While toxic levels are typically only achieved through vitamin supplements, if large quantities of fat-soluble vitamins are consumed, either through foods or supplements, vitamin levels can build up in the liver and fatty tissues, leading to symptoms of toxicity.

There is limited storage capacity in the body for water-soluble vitamins, thus making it important to consume these vitamins on a daily basis. Deficiency of water-soluble vitamins is more common than fat-soluble vitamin deficiency because of this lack of storage. That also means toxicity of water-soluble vitamins is rare. Because of their solubility in water, intake of these vitamins in amounts above what is needed by the body can, to some extent, be excreted in the urine, leading to a lower risk of toxicity. Similar to fat-soluble vitamins, a toxic intake of water-soluble vitamins is not common through food sources, but is most frequently seen due to supplement use.

Characteristics of Fat-Soluble Vitamins	Characteristics of Water-Soluble Vitamins
Protect cell membranes from free radical damage; act within the cell’s nucleus to influence gene expression	Act in the cytosol of cells or in extracellular fluids such as blood
Absorbed into lymph with fats from foods	Absorbed directly into blood
Large storage capacity in fatty tissues	Little to no storage capacity
Do not need to be consumed daily to prevent deficiency (may take months to develop)	Need to be consumed regularly to prevent deficiency
Toxicity is more likely	Toxicity is rare

. Characteristics of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.

Minerals

Similarly to vitamins, minerals are micronutrients that are essential to human health and can be obtained in our diet from different types of food. Minerals are abundant in our everyday lives. From the soil in your front yard to the jewelry you wear on your body, we interact with minerals constantly. Minerals are inorganic elements in their simplest form, originating from the Earth. They can’t be broken down or used as an energy source, but like vitamins, serve essential functions based on their individual characteristics. Living organisms can’t make minerals, so the minerals our bodies need must come from the diet. Plants obtain minerals from the soil they grow in. Humans obtain minerals from eating plants, as well as indirectly from eating animal products (because the animal consumed minerals in the plants it ate). We also get minerals from the water we drink. The mineral content of soil and water varies from place to place, so the mineral composition of foods and water differs based on geographic location.²

Classification of Minerals

Minerals are classified as either major minerals or trace minerals, depending on the amount needed in the body. Major minerals are those that are required in the diet in amounts larger than 100 milligrams each day. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in many foods. While deficiencies are possible with minerals, consuming a varied diet significantly improves an individual’s ability to meet their nutrient needs. We’ll discuss the concern of both deficiencies and toxicities of specific minerals later in this unit.

Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet in smaller amounts, specifically 100 milligrams or less per day. These include iron, copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, and molybdenum. Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts, a deficiency of a trace mineral can be just as detrimental to your health as a major mineral deficiency.

The classification of minerals as either major minerals or trace minerals.

Minerals are water-soluble and do not require enzymatic digestion. They are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, although some minerals need the assistance of transport proteins for absorption and transport in blood.

Minerals are not as efficiently absorbed as most vitamins, and many factors influence their bioavailability:

• Minerals are generally better absorbed from animal-based foods. Plant-based foods often contain compounds that can bind to minerals and inhibit their absorption (e.g., oxalates, phytates).
• In most cases, if dietary intake of a particular mineral is increased, absorption will decrease.
• Some minerals influence the absorption of others. For instance, excess zinc in the diet can impair iron and copper absorption. Conversely, certain vitamins enhance mineral absorption. For example, vitamin C boosts iron absorption, and vitamin D boosts calcium and magnesium absorption.
• As is the case with vitamins, mineral absorption can be impaired by certain gastrointestinal disorders and other diseases, such as Crohn’s disease and kidney disease, as well as the aging process. Thus, people with malabsorption conditions and the elderly are at higher risk for mineral deficiencies.

Fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are present in foods containing fats. The body absorbs these vitamins as it does dietary fats. They do not dissolve in water.

Vitamins help the body function effectively. There are two types: water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamins B and C.

Most vitamins come from food, but sunshine contributes to vitamin D. Some people need or choose to take supplements that provide extra vitamins.

The body absorbs fat-soluble vitamins best when a person eats them with higher-fat foods.

This article looks at the types, functions, and sources of fat-soluble vitamins, and what can happen if a person has too much or too little.

Vitamin A

Carrots are a dietary source of vitamin A.

Vitamin A helps maintain healthy vision. Without vitamin A, a person could experience vision problems and possibly vision loss.

Types

Vitamin A is not a single vitamin but a collection of compounds known as retinoids. Retinoids occur naturally in the human body, and they are present in some dietary sources.

Some foods provide retinols, which the body can use directly as vitamin A. Others provide provitamin A, compounds that the body converts into vitamin A.

Function

Vitamin A supports several functions throughout the body, including:

• vision
• the immune system

Dietary sources

People can obtain vitamin A through dietary sources.

Animal sources provide preformed vitamin A, or retinols. This type is ready for the body to use.

Plant sources provide carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, which is a powerful antioxidant. The body can convert these into vitamin A.

For this reason, lists of ingredients often show vitamin A content as “vitamin A RAE.” RAE means “retinol activity equivalents.”

Animal sources of vitamin A include:

• fish liver oil
• beef liver
• cheese, milk, and other dairy products
• Sources of beta carotene include:
• sweet potato
• kale, spinach, and other green, leafy vegetables
• carrots
• cantaloupe
• black-eyed peas
• fortified breakfast cereals

Recommended intake

Nutritionists measure some vitamins in two ways:

• micrograms (mcg) RAE
• international units (IU)

Food packages usually show the amounts in IU. A diet that contains 900 mcg RAE of vitamin A, which is the recommended intake for males over 14 years of age, would provide around 3,000–36,000 IU of vitamin A, according to the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS).

Anyone who has concerns about their vitamin A intake should seek advice from a health professional, who will help them understand these measures.

The recommended intake of vitamin A varies by age and sex.

The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for AmericansTrusted Source recommend consuming the following amounts each day. Amounts are in mcg RAE.

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14 and over
Female	300	400	600	700
Male	300	400	600	900

Deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency is rare in the United States, but it can affect a person who:

• follows a plant-based diet
• has cystic fibrosis

A long-term deficiency can lead to a loss of night vision and possibly a total loss of vision.

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Overdose

Too much vitamin A can be toxic.

It can affect:

• people who take vitamin A supplements
• those with a high intake of fish liver oil
• people who take medications that contain retinoids, such as acitretin (Soriatane), a treatment for psoriasis

During pregnancy, high levels of vitamin A can harm a growing fetus.

Symptoms of an overdose include:

• headaches
• fatigue
• nausea
• dizziness

In severe cases, coma and death can result.

Vitamin A supplements are available for purchase online. However, people should speak to a doctor before taking these or other supplements.

Vitamin D

People obtain vitamin D:

• naturally through exposure to sunlight or in the diet
• through fortified foods
• as supplements

The body obtains the compounds it needs to make vitamin D from food. It also produces vitamin D when ultraviolet (UV) light meets the skin.

Types

Vitamin D is not a single substance but a group of compounds collectively known as calciferol.

The body absorbs calciferol into the bloodstream and then converts it to calcitriol.

Two types occur naturally:

• vitamin D-3, found in animal fats
• vitamin D-2, found in plants, such as mushrooms

Function

Vitamin D has two main roles in the body:

• It maintains bone health.
• It supports the immune system.

Dietary sources

A person can obtain some vitamin D from the sun, but most people will also need to use other sources, too. The main alternative is food.

Dietary sources include:

• oily fish and fish oils
• fortified dairy products, plant-based milks, and cereals
• beef liver
• eggs

Recommended intake

Experts measure vitamin D in international units (IU).

Current guidelinesTrusted Source recommend that people of all ages intake of 600 IU of vitamin D daily. This is hard to measure, however, as it is not easy for a person to know how much vitamin D they obtain from sunlight.

Deficiency

A vitamin D deficiency can affect:

• older adults and children who do not spend much time out of doors
• people with darker skin
• some people with chronic health conditions
• those who live far from the Equator, where winter days are short
• those with obesity

The main effects of vitamin D deficiency include:

• osteoporosis, or loss of bone mass

• osteomalacia, when bones become soft
• rickets, when a child’s bones do not develop as they should
• increased risk of infection and autoimmunity

Overdose

It is rare for a person to have too much vitamin D, but using supplements could trigger this.

Having too much vitamin D could lead to high levels of calcium in the blood.

This can lead to:

• nausea
• headaches
• low appetite and weight loss
• a buildup of calcium in tissues and blood vessels
• heart or kidney damage
• high blood pressure

Vitamin D supplements are available for purchase in pharmacies and online. A person should speak to their doctor before using these supplements, however.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is an antioxidant that can help the body destroy free radicals. Free radicals are unstable atoms that can cause oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can lead to cell damage, and this can result in cancer and other diseases. Vitamin E may help protect the body from a range of health issues.

Types

There are eight forms of vitamin E, but only alpha-tocopherol meets humans’ needs, according to the ODS.

Function

Some reasons why the body needs vitamin E are:

• as an antioxidant
• to boost the immune system
• to dilate blood vessels and help prevent clotting

Dietary sources

Good sources of vitamin E include:

• wheat germ oil
• sunflower seeds and oil
• almonds, hazelnuts, and peanuts
• spinach and broccoli
• kiwi fruit and mango

Recommended intake

Current guidelinesTrusted Source recommend people consume the following amounts of vitamin E. Experts measure vitamin E intake in milligrams (mg) AT, but packaging currently uses international units (IU).

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14 and over
Female	6 mg (9IU)	7 mg (10.4 IU)	11 mg (16.4 IU)	15 mg (22.4 IU)
Male	6 mg (9IU)	7 mg (10.4 IU)	11 mg (16.4 IU)	15 mg (22.4 IU)

The ODS note that, during breastfeeding, a female should consume 19 mg (28.4 IU) each day.

Deficiency

Vitamin E deficiency is rare, but it can affect people with Crohn’s disease or cystic fibrosis. These conditions affect the liver’s ability to absorb vitamin E.

A deficiency can result in:

• nerve and muscle damage that affects movement and coordination
• vision problems
• a weakened immune system

As vitamin E is an antioxidant, a long-term deficiency could increase the overall risk of various diseases.

Overdose

Obtaining vitamin E through natural sources is unlikely to lead to an overdose, although supplement use can increase this risk.

People who use blood-thinning medication, such as warfarin (Coumadin) should ask their doctor before taking vitamin E supplements, as these may interfere with blood clotting.

Vitamin E supplements are available for purchase in pharmacies

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Vitamin K

Vitamin K helps the body form blood clots. Blood clotting is essential to prevent excessive bleeding.

Types

There are several types of vitamin K.

The two most common groups are:

• Vitamin K-1 (phylloquinone), present in green, leafy vegetables and some other plant sources
• Vitamin K-2 (menaquinones), present in animal sources and fermented foods

There are also synthetic forms and other forms that the body makes.

Function

Apart from blood clotting, vitamin K may also:

• lower the risk of heart disease
• enhance bone health
• reduce the buildup of calcium in the blood

Dietary sources

Food sources of vitamin K-1 and K-2 include:

• kale
• liver
• spinach
• parsley
• butter
• egg yolks

Recommended intake

Experts do not have enough evidence to recommend a specific intake of vitamin K suitable to meet the needs of 97-98% of healthy individuals.

Instead, they recommend an adequate intake , an amount assumed to provide nutritional adequacy, as follows:

Age (years)	1–3	4–8	9–13	14–18	19 and over
Female	30	55	60	75	90
Male	30	55	60	75	120

Deficiency

The body is not able to store as much vitamin K as it does vitamin A or D. This means a person needs a regular intake of vitamin K, and there is a higher chance of a deficiency.

A vitamin K deficiency may result in:

• excess bleeding
• lower bone density, in the long term

Water-soluble vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins travel freely through the body, and excess amounts usually are excreted by the kidneys. The body needs water-soluble vitamins in frequent, small doses. These vitamins are not as likely as fat-soluble vitamins to reach toxic levels. But niacin, vitamin B6, folate, choline, and vitamin C have upper consumption limits. Vitamin B6 at high levels over a long period of time has been shown to cause irreversible nerve damage.

A balanced diet usually provides enough of these vitamins. People older than 50 and some vegetarians may need to use supplements to get enough B12.

Nutrient	Function	Sources
Thiamine (vitamin B1)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function	Found in all nutritious foods in moderate amounts: pork, whole grain foods or enriched breads and cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health	Milk and milk products; leafy green vegetables; whole grain foods, enriched breads and cereals
Niacin (vitamin B3)	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health	Meat, poultry, fish, whole grain foods, enriched breads and cereals, vegetables (especially mushrooms, asparagus, and leafy green vegetables), peanut butter
Pantothenic acid	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism	Widespread in foods
Biotin	Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism	Widespread in foods; also produced in intestinal tract by bacteria
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)	Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells	Meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits
Folic acid	Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells	Leafy green vegetables and legumes, seeds, orange juice, and liver; now added to most refined grains
Cobalamin (vitamin B12)	Part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; important to nerve function	Meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and milk products; not found in plant foods
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)	Antioxidant; part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption	Found only in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, vegetables in the cabbage family, cantaloupe, strawberries, peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce, papayas, mangoes, kiwifruit

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Eating nutritious foods can improve your health and energy levels.

Surprisingly, the way you cook your food has a major effect on the amount of nutrients it contains.

This article explores how various cooking methods affect the nutrient content of foods.

Almost all foods consumed need some form of cooking and processing for making it fit for consumption. The nutrients we receive from the meals depend largely on the extent of cooking practices used. Some of the nutrients are lost during cooking. Cooking also has its benefits like:

• It increases palatability
• It makes food easily digestible
• Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed, thus safe.
• The appearance of food improves

Food prepared in large quantities in institutional kitchens or food processing plants is more prone to loss of nutrients if adequate care is not taken to preserve its nutrients. In the initial stages of cooking the soaking of food in water leads to leaching of vitamins and minerals. These losses can be minimized by washing the uncut fruits and vegetables and not soaking them in water.

Nutrient content is often altered during cooking

Cooking food improves digestion and increases the absorption of many nutrients .

For example, the protein in cooked eggs is 180% more digestible than that of raw eggs .

However, some cooking methods reduce several key nutrients.

The following nutrients are often reduced during cooking:

• water-soluble vitamins: vitamin C and the B vitamins — thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), folic acid (B9), and cobalamin (B12)
• fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K
• minerals: primarily potassium, magnesium, sodium, and calcium

Summary

Although cooking improves digestion and the absorption of many nutrients, it may reduce levels of some vitamins and minerals.

Boiling, simmering, and poaching

Boiling, simmering, and poaching are similar methods of water-based cooking.

These techniques differ by water temperature:

• poaching: less than 180°F (82°C)
• simmering: 185–200°F (85–93°C)
• boiling: 212°F (100°C)

Vegetables are generally a great source of vitamin C, but a large amount of it is lost when they’re cooked in water.

In fact, boiling reduces vitamin C content more than any other cooking method. Broccoli, spinach, and lettuce may lose up to 50% or more of their vitamin C when boiled.

Because vitamin C is water-soluble and sensitive to heat, it can leach out of vegetables when they’re immersed in hot water.

B vitamins are similarly heat sensitive. Up to 60% of thiamine, niacin, and other B vitamins may be lost when meat is simmered and its juices run off.

However, when the liquid containing these juices is consumed, 100% of the minerals and 70–90% of B vitamins are retained

On the other hand, boiling fish was shown to preserve omega-3 fatty acid content significantly more than frying or microwaving

Summary

While water-based cooking methods cause the greatest losses of water-soluble vitamins, they have very little effect on omega-3 fats.

Grilling and broiling

Grilling and broiling are similar methods of cooking with dry heat.

When grilling, the heat source comes from below, but when broiling, it comes from above.

Grilling is one of the most popular cooking methods because of the great flavor it gives food.

However, up to 40% of B vitamins and minerals may be lost during grilling or broiling when the nutrient-rich juice drips from the meat .

There are also concerns about polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are potentially cancer-causing substances that form when meat is grilled and fat drips onto a hot surface.

However, researchers have found that PAHs can be decreased by 41–89% if drippings are removed and smoke is minimized

Summary

Grilling and broiling provide great flavor but also reduce levels of B vitamins. Also, grilling generates potentially cancer-causing substances.

Microwaving

Microwaving is an easy, convenient, and safe method of cooking.

Short cooking times and reduced exposure to heat preserve the nutrients in microwaved food

In fact, studies have found that microwaving is the best method for retaining the antioxidant activity of garlic and mushrooms

Meanwhile, about 20–30% of the vitamin C in green vegetables is lost during microwaving, which is less than most cooking methods

Summary

Microwaving is a safe cooking method that preserves most nutrients due to short cooking times.

Roasting and baking

Roasting and baking refer to cooking food in an oven with dry heat.

Although these terms are somewhat interchangeable, roasting is typically used for meat while baking is used for bread, muffins, cake, and similar foods.

Most vitamin losses are minimal with this cooking method, including vitamin C.

However, due to long cooking times at high temperatures, the B vitamins in roasted meat may decline by as much as 40% .

Summary

Roasting or baking does not have a significant effect on most vitamins and minerals, except for B vitamins.

Sautéing and stir-frying

With sautéing and stir-frying, food is cooked in a saucepan over medium to high heat in a small amount of oil or butter.

These techniques are very similar, but with stir-frying, the food is stirred often, the temperature is higher, and the cooking time is shorter.

In general, this is a healthy way to prepare food.

Cooking for a short time without water prevents the loss of B vitamins, and the addition of fat improves the absorption of plant compounds and antioxidants.

One study found that the absorption of beta carotene was 6.5 times greater in stir-fried carrots than in raw ones .

In another study, blood lycopene levels increased 80% more when people consumed tomatoes sautéed in olive oil rather than without it .

On the other hand, stir-frying has been shown to significantly reduce the amount of vitamin C in broccoli and red cabbage .

Summary

Sautéing and stir-frying improve the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and some plant compounds, but they decrease the amount of vitamin C in vegetables.

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Frying

Frying involves cooking food in a large amount of fat — usually oil — at a high temperature. The food is often coated with batter or bread crumbs.

It’s a popular way of preparing food because the skin or coating maintains a seal, which ensures that the inside remains moist and cooks evenly.

The fat used for frying also makes the food taste very good.

However, not all foods are appropriate for frying.

Fatty fish are the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which have many health benefits. However, these fats are very delicate and prone to damage at high temperatures.

For example, frying tuna has been shown to degrade its omega-3 content by up to 70–85%, while baking causes only minimal losses

In contrast, frying preserves vitamin C and B vitamins, and it may also increase the amount of fiber in potatoes by converting their starch into resistant starch.

When oil is heated to a high temperature for a long period of time, toxic substances called aldehydes are formed. Aldehydes have been linked to an increased risk of cancer and other diseases .

The type of oil, temperature, and length of cooking time affect the amount of aldehydes produced. Reheating oil also increases aldehyde formation.

If you’re going to fry food, don’t overcook it, and use one of the healthiest oils for frying.

Summary

Frying makes food taste delicious, and it can provide some benefits when healthy oils are used. It’s best to avoid frying fatty fish and minimize the frying time of other foods.

Steaming

Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins, which are sensitive to heat and water

Researchers have found that steaming broccoli, spinach, and lettuce reduces their vitamin C content by only 9–15%

The downside is that steamed vegetables may taste bland. However, this is easy to remedy by adding some seasoning and oil or butter after cooking.

Summary

Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins.

Tips to maximize nutrient retention during cooking

Here are 10 tips to reduce nutrient loss while cooking:

1. Use as little water as possible when poaching or boiling.
2. Consume the liquid left in the pan after cooking vegetables.
3. Add back juices from meat that drip into the pan.
4. Don’t peel vegetables until after cooking them. Better yet, don’t peel at all to maximize their fiber and nutrient density.
5. Cook vegetables in smaller amounts of water to reduce the loss of vitamin C and B vitamins.
6. Try to eat any cooked vegetables within a day or two, as their vitamin C content may continue to decline when the cooked food is exposed to air.
7. Cut food after — rather than before — cooking, if possible. When food is cooked whole, less of it is exposed to heat and water.
8. Cook vegetables for only a few minutes whenever possible.
9. When cooking meat, poultry, and fish, use the shortest cooking time needed for safe consumption.
10. Don’t use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps maintain color, vitamin C will be lost in the alkaline environment produced by baking soda.

Summary

There are many ways to preserve the nutrient content of foods without sacrificing taste or other qualities.

The bottom line

It’s important to select the right cooking method to maximize the nutritional quality of your meal.

However, there is no perfect cooking method that retains all nutrients.

In general, cooking for shorter periods at lower temperatures with minimal water will produce the best results.

Don’t let the nutrients in your food go down the drain.

Various effects seen on the nutrients are primarily because of the HEAT, ALKALI, and ACID.

Effect Of Heat On The Nutrients

• In carbohydrates, cooking has a beneficial effect as it leads to gelatinization of starch and caramelization of sugar which gives color and flavor to food.
• Proteins get denatured thus access to enzymes and digestibility increases.
• Moist heating of pulses improves protein quality.
• Chemical reactions take place when oil is continuously heated. Reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of the oil. Oil becomes dark and foamy, such an oil should not be used for consumption
• Blanching inactivates certain enzymes that lead to undesirable browning.
• Heat labile vitamins are lost.
• Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during fat frying if a product is not coated properly.

Effect Of Alkali On Nutrients

• Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegetables. Pinch of sodium bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green color.
• B complex vitamins and Vit.C are destroyed in an alkaline medium.
• Excessive cooking in the alkaline medium not only destroys vitamins but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the product.

Effect Of Acid On Nutrients

• An acidic medium while cooking helps to preserve water-soluble vitamins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and vegetables.
• Vegetables and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium as acids precipitate pectin and harden vegetables.
• Vegetables lose their color, so to overcome this allow the volatile acids to escape first, hence greens should be cooked without lid for the first few minutes.

Guidelines For Preserving Nutrients

• Wash vegetables, fruits and rice in just a sufficient amount of water. It is advisable either to cook in a minimum amount of water or to use the cooking water in soups and gravies.
• Cutting vegetables to small pieces and exposing them to air before cooking leads to loss of vitamins particularly vitamin C. Thus it is advisable to cut large pieces and cook for a shorter period.
• The 3 R’s of cooking to conserve nutrients are:

1. Reduce the amount of water
2. Reduce the length of the cooking period
3. Reduce the amount of surface area exposed

• Oil heated repeatedly should not be consumed as repeated heating during frying leads to the production of toxic substances due to pre-oxidation and rancidity.
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Food processing is the alteration of foods from the state in which they are harvested or raised to better preserve them and feed consumers,Processing began in prehistoric times. As agriculture and animal husbandry spread, it was essential to preserve foods to avoid losses because of spoilage and to survive during times of scarcity. Food processing was probably the first “technology” that was sufficiently successful such that it led to a segregation of societies into discrete artisan industries. As such, food processing as an industry was likely the stepping stone to urbanization.

Eight types of supplementary foods based on popped cereals (wheat, ragi, bajra and sorghum) blended with legumes (soy and bengalgram) and fortified with essential vitamins and minerals were developed on a pilot plant scale. Four of the supplements were prepared with cereals, soy flour (SF) and bengal gram (BG) dhal and the other four were prepared with combinations of cereals and SF. These blends were mixed with jaggery (obtained by boiling juice out of sugarcane) syrup and pressed into compact form. One hundred gram portions of these foods provided 370 ± 20 kilocalories and 11 ± 1 g protein. Moisture, crude protein, total carbohydrates, total lipids, ash, dietary fiber and energy contents, of all the developed supplements were within the ranges prescribed by the Indian Standards Institute for processed weaning foods and could satisfactorily meet one-third of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of these nutrients per day for preschool children. Organoleptic evaluation and feeding trials revealed that the foods were well accepted by rural mothers and children.

Until recently, much preservation and processing of food were done at home; only within the past 100 y has large-scale food processing become an industrial process. The basic steps involved in preservation and processing and their consequences on food quality, nourishment, and safety are largely the same, however, regardless of whether food is processed at home or commercially.

Definitions of processed foods

Perhaps some of the confusion surrounding processed foods can be clarified by stating some simple operational definitions at the outset. To process food means to use a series of mechanical or chemical operations to change or preserve it. An Institute of Food Technologists scientific review (1) described processing as “one or more of a range of operations, including washing, grinding, mixing, cooling, storing, heating, freezing, filtering, fermenting, extracting, extruding, centrifuging, frying, drying, concentrating, pressurizing, irradiating, microwaving, and packaging.” Many staples in the diet, such as bread, cheese, and wine, bear little or no resemblance to their starting commodities and are highly processed and prepared but are often not regarded as “processed” by consumers.

Categories of processed foods as proposed by the International Food Information Council¹

Type of food	Examples
Foods that require processing or production (also called “minimally processed”)	Washed and packaged fruit and vegetables; bagged salads; roasted and ground nuts and coffee beans
Foods processed to help preserve and enhance nutrients and freshness of foods at their peak	Canned tuna, beans, and tomatoes; frozen fruits and vegetables; puréed and jarred baby foods
Foods that combine ingredients such as sweeteners, spices, oils, flavors, colors, and preservatives to improve safety and taste and/or add visual appeal; does not include “ready-to-eat” foods listed below	Some packaged foods, such as instant potato mix, rice, cake mix, jarred tomato sauce, spice mixes, dressings and sauces, and gelatin
“Ready-to-eat” foods needing minimal or no preparation	Breakfast cereal, flavored oatmeal, crackers, jams and jellies, nut butters, ice cream, yogurt, garlic bread, granola bars, cookies, fruit chews, rotisserie chicken, luncheon meats, honey-baked ham, cheese spreads, fruit drinks, and carbonated beverages
Foods packaged to stay fresh and save time	Prepared deli foods and frozen meats, entrées, pot pies, and pizzas

ACTIONS NEEDED TO ENHANCE THE CONTRIBUTION OF PROCESSED FOOD TO NUTRITIONAL SECURITY AND FOOD SECURITY

Nutritional security ensures an adequate, balanced, varied, and wholesome diet. Food security, or having enough food and a secure, sustainable, and affordable food supply, is essential for all countries and individuals.

factors such as population growth, food insecurity, and the globalization of the food supply will affect the demand for food in the United States and abroad and food security over the next 25–50 y.

To enhance the contribution of processed foods in helping to address these challenges, several actions are described below.-

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Enhance nutritional benefits and decrease undesirable attributes of food processing

Many years ago, Bender suggested some rules of thumb for producing nutritionally favorable processed foods, such as convenience in preparing a complete meal, ease in conforming to human needs, an emphasis on foods with nutrients that are likely to fall short in diets, and a de-emphasis on those with constituents that are in excess. Food processing techniques such as enrichment and fortification can add essential nutrients that might otherwise be in short supply and can alter food profiles to decrease components that may be overconsumed. Some examples are iron-fortified infant cereals, the fortification of milk with vitamin D, the fortification of margarine with vitamin A, processed foods prepared with iodized salt enrichment of cereals with B vitamins and iron, and the recent fortification of wheat flour with folic acid.

Diminish perceived and real disadvantages of food processing

Unfamiliar processes

One disadvantage of commercial food processing techniques is that they are poorly understood. Commercial food processing involves techniques that are difficult for the general public to grasp and that are out of their control, thus introducing a lack of transparency and generating suspicion and concerns about safety in some individuals.

In addition, concerns about the nutritional content and other aspects of the production of processed foods, such as sustainability and cost, have led to criticisms of processed foods as “ultra-processed” and not compatible with good nutrition. However, the type and extent of processing do not necessarily correlate with the nutritional content of the product. For example, high-temperature, short-term pasteurization and ultrahigh temperature sterilization cause less loss of nutrients than do older methods such as pasteurization and sterilization.

Food safety

Another concern about food processing involves fears about food safety. In the 19th century, during the transition from farms and subsistence agriculture with home-processed food to urbanization and a commercially processed food supply that was ineffectively regulated, adulteration and other abuses in the manufacture of processed foods were common.

It is a constant and dynamic challenge to keep pace with the changing food supply and to continue to maintain a safe food supply. Appropriate processing and preparation techniques for foods and a strong regulatory program are 2 essential means of safeguarding health in the face of these safety challenges.

Nutritional value

Many Americans are concerned about nutrition, but they may not know how to prepare foods to maintain their nutritional value. Some also have nutritional concerns about food processing that may lead to over- or undercooking of food at home. Processing techniques that involve milling; separating; exposures to air, light, heat, or radiation; changes in acidity or osmolality; or other techniques during freezing, drying, canning, or vacuum packing can and often do alter the content of nutrients and other nonessential bioactive food constituents.

Cost

The actual cost of food is a subject on which a great deal of consumer ignorance exists. Relative to virtually all consumer product categories, food costs have increased the least over the past half century . Nevertheless, consumers remain highly sensitive to food prices, and price approaches taste as a top concern when purchasing foods and beverages.

Lack of fit with food preferences or other values

Some consumers have ethical or cultural beliefs or philosophical concerns about processed foods. They hold values or preferences that cause them to object to various aspects of processing (eg, food colors, food additives, bioengineered foods, irradiated foods, foods processed in unsustainable ways, or foods with high carbon footprints). These values are personal views that nutrition and food scientists must respect and, when possible, provide alternatives in the marketplace that cater to them. Better communication with consumers is needed to modify values and choices that are motivated more by perceptions of a food being unhealthy or perceptions of risk or lack of safety.

Enhance understanding of the role of food processing in meeting nutritional needs as well as societal and consumer wants

Nutrition scientists, food scientists, food manufacturers, and health professionals are having difficulty communicating among themselves and to consumers about the role of processed foods in nutrition and health. In part this is because of the different definitions used by these groups, the different perceptions of these groups, and the difference in the training they have received. For example, an individual who desires a diet that is low in pesticides, hormones, and additives may describe it as one that does not contain “processed” foods, but a food scientist/technologist interprets this request as a desire to omit all foods that are heat-treated, frozen, or otherwise transformed during manufacture. Thus, the two will misunderstand each other and strive for different outcomes. A nutritionist is interested in processed foods from yet a third viewpoint, ie, the nutrient contribution to the diet. Nutrition professionals can play a role in assessing the contributions of processed foods to the intake of both nutrients to encourage and constituents to limit.

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